Traditional medicine in Tanzania:a review of historical perspective,current practices and challenges

The use of traditional medicine(TM)is essential for preventing and treating diseases and thus improving human health.Worldwide,TM has been used since time immemorial.In Tanzania,the use of TM was most common during precolonial era before it was discriminated during the Germany colonial rule.However,it regained the attention during the private sector emergence era(1985-2004).Currently,there are ongoing efforts to integrate TM and modern medicine to improve healthcare systems in developing countries for sustainable healthcare management.This review aims to provide an overview of the historical and current status,challenges,and future direction for TM in Tanzania.The analysis revealed that the development of TM was somehow underdeveloped during the colonial rule but regained its popularity after independence.Currently,there are many opportunities such as the presence of legal and institutional frameworks,a varied medicinal biodiversity,with some of them being endemic to Tanzania,political will etc.Despite the available opportunities,there are numerous challenges to the development and use of TM.These include inadequate financial and human resources for research,poor conservation of medicinal biodiversity;modernization;intellectual property rights of TM knowledge;lack of safety,efficacy,and quality data of medicinal products.The development and utility of TM as a resource is crucial to protect practise.Thus,the study recommends more capacity building in terms of finances,technology development,human resources training,advocacy and integration of TM into healthcare system.

The Same Term but Different Connotations:Cultural and Historical Perspectives on Studying the Academic Profession in China and Other Asian Countries

Through experiencing and reviewing multiple-country endeavors in academic profession study and participating in a new project regarding the academic profession in Asia,the author pinpoints and anticipates the shortcomings of study alone or dominantly questionnaire-based and ignoring the broader social context.The author proposes a new perspective or methodology to mitigate these shortcomings.The traditional approach focuses on commonalities rather than differences of the academic profession in a variety of countries.By comparing identical questionnaires,it is easy to conclude that,according to some indicators,the academic profession in developing countries,a category in which most Asian countries belong,is inferior to that in developed countries by a certain magnitude.This research strategy will devalue the research efforts on the academic profession in Asia.The academic profession is a complicated phenomenon,and it requires a sophisticated research methodology.The characteristics of the academic profession in Asia can be induced by empirically studying its relationship with the institutional environments in which the academic profession is embedded.In addition,all developing countries in Asia are undergoing a process of modernization.This dynamic feature is valuable and deserves exploration.The institutional environments in Asia can be demonstrated and illustrated via cultural and historical lenses.The purpose of this paper is to review international projects and literature regarding the academic profession.This review tries to be both critical and constructive,and shed light on newly initiated projects in the Asian academic profession.Two major research questions are raised by the author:What is the scholarly value of the new project?What strategy can researchers employ for this endeavor?Past research is dominated by the structure-function paradigm and cross-sectional questionnaire method.This approach has both strengths and weaknesses.Historical and cultural perspectives are proposed to overcome the Cultural and Historical Perspectives on Studying the Academic Profession existing limitations and explore the potential value of the new academic effort.

A Research Conception on Indigenous Chinese Leadership:Based on Comparative Case Studies on Political Elites in Ancient China

Due to the complexity of leadership and its variability across situations,it is suggested that research on leadership should focus on attempts to understand leadership in specific situations or roles,and develop local knowledge about leadership in each situation or role.This paper validates the possibility and importance of building indigenous leadership theories from historical perspective.We demonstrated how to carry out research on indigenous Chinese leadership from a historical perspective by comparative case studies using historical data.Based on the principles of typicalness,representativeness,and comparativeness,we selected six counterparts of political elites in ancient China as comparative cases,which includes Guan Zhong&Shang Yang(organizational reformer),Liu Bang&Xiang Yu(entrepreneur),Li Shimin&Qin Shihuang(intergenerational transition successor),Zhuge Liang&Zeng Guofan(professional manager),Lu Su&Zhang Juzheng(mess-to-order maker),and Zuo Zongtang&Wang Anshi(national dream driver).The paper aims to develop indigenous leadership theory specific to Chinese mental states and culture.

Historical perspective of living donor liver transplantation

Living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) has gone through its formative years and established as a legitimate treatment when a deceased donor liver graft is not timely or simply not available at all. Nevertheless, LDLT is characterized by its technical complexity and ethical controversy. These are the consequences of a single organ having to serve two subjects, the donor and the recipient, instantaneously. The transplant community has a common ground on assuring donor safety while achieving predictable recipient success. With this background, a reflection of the development of LDLT may be appropriate to direct future research and patient-care efforts on this life-saving treatment alternative.

Different Situations, Different Economic Institutions ---A Historical Perspective on China and India＇s Approaches to Development

Both being two developing countries with a vast territory, dense population, and centuries-old ancient civilization, China and India have many in common in natural resources, population size, historical condition, current economic issues, etc. except for regime. The competition between China and India is a typical one between economic institutions. This paper, by making a diachronic analysis on their courses of development, tries to justify the importance of adopting an economic institution suitable to the situation of a country.

Sustainability and Its Constraints in the Global Tourist Industry： Exploring the Dark Side in the Growth of International Tourism

This paper provides a brief overview of three problematic aspects of the trend towards globalization in the tourist industry： sex tourism, exploitation of minors, and environmental degradation in both the physical and social environments. This paper draws on the experience of fast-expanding tourist centres in Central America, in addition to worldwide compilations of published data. It suggests that underlying the specific problems of each of these three major aspects of globalized tourism, there exists a deeper malaise： its potential contribution to a deeper rift between ＂haves＂ and ＂have-nots＂. Income inequality has clearly always existed; however, the awareness of such inequality may spread through the globalizing nature of intemational tourism. Such consciousness may lead to increasing resentment, despite the injection of tourist income into the local economy. One-way exploitation is thus distinguished from mutual exploitation, and in that context, ＂gringoitis＂ and social degradation are discussed. The possibility is explored that growth in global tourism is ultimately beneficial. However, the dark side of that growth needs further exposure. That is the aim of this paper.

3nce upon a Time- Chloroplast Protein Imporl Research from Infancy to Future Challenges

Protein import into chloroplasts has been a focus of research for several decades. The first publications dealing with this fascinating topic appeared in the 1970s. From the initial realization that many plastid proteins are being encoded for in the nucleus and require transport into their target organelle to the identification of import components in the cytosol, chloroplast envelopes, and stroma, as well as elucidation of some mechanistic details, more fascinating aspects are still being unraveled. With this overview, we present a survey of the beginnings of chloroplast protein import research, the first steps on this winding road, and end with a glimpse into the future.

The Early Modern Economy of the Yangzi Delta in a New Perspective

China has experienced spectacular economic growth during the past three decades and seen some parts of the country, in particular the Yangzi Delta, swiftly converging with the developed countries in the level of economic development. This unprecedented growth has been seen as the greatest economic miracle in world history. This miracle is based on the economic performance of the Yangzi Delta in the long run of centuries. It is impossible to achieve a better understanding of the economic miracle of the delta without a better understanding of the basis created by the delta＇s economy during its long historical development, in particular in the centuries before the modern West arrived in the mid- nineteenth century. To achieve this objective, we must break free of the West-centric straightjacket and study China＇s early modern economy from a new perspective, which will be crucial to improve our knowledge of Chinese economic performance prior to the arrival of the West.