Microstructural evolution and hot tensile behavior of Mg−3Zn−0.5Zr alloy subjected to multi-pass friction stir processing

The microstructures and hot tensile behaviors of ZK30 alloys subjected to single-and multi-pass friction stir processing(FSP)were systematically investigated.Following single-pass FSP(S-FSP),coarse grains underwent refinement to 1−2μm,with a distinct basal texture emerging in the stir zone(SZ).Additionally,second-phase particles were fragmented,dispersed,and partially dissolved.Multi-pass FSP(M-FSP)further enhanced the homogeneity of the microstructure,reduced texture intensity differences,and decreased the fraction of second-phase particles by 50%.Both S-FSP and M-FSP SZs demonstrated superplasticity at strain rates below 1×10^(−3)s^(−1)and at temperatures of 250−350℃.The S-FSP SZ exhibited an elongation of 390%at 250℃and 1×10^(−4)s^(−1),while the M-FSP SZ achieved an elongation of 406%at 350℃and 1×10^(−3)s^(−1).The superplastic deformation of SZ was co-dominated by grain boundary sliding(GBS)and the solute-drag mechanism in S-FSP and mainly by GBS in M-FSP.

Machine Learning Techniques in Predicting Hot Deformation Behavior of Metallic Materials

In engineering practice,it is often necessary to determine functional relationships between dependent and independent variables.These relationships can be highly nonlinear,and classical regression approaches cannot always provide sufficiently reliable solutions.Nevertheless,Machine Learning(ML)techniques,which offer advanced regression tools to address complicated engineering issues,have been developed and widely explored.This study investigates the selected ML techniques to evaluate their suitability for application in the hot deformation behavior of metallic materials.The ML-based regression methods of Artificial Neural Networks(ANNs),Support Vector Machine(SVM),Decision Tree Regression(DTR),and Gaussian Process Regression(GPR)are applied to mathematically describe hot flow stress curve datasets acquired experimentally for a medium-carbon steel.Although the GPR method has not been used for such a regression task before,the results showed that its performance is the most favorable and practically unrivaled;neither the ANN method nor the other studied ML techniques provide such precise results of the solved regression analysis.

Hot deformation behavior and processing map of Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy

The high-temperature deformation behavior of Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy was investigated by using the hot compression test in the temperature range of 600-800 ℃ and strain rate of 0.01-5 s-1. The hot deformation activation energy, Q, was calculated and the hot compression constitutive equation was established. The processing maps of the alloy were constructed based on the experiment data and the forging process parameters were then optimized based on the generated maps for forging process determination. The flow behavior and the microstructural mechanism of the alloy were studied. The flow stress of the Cu-Ni-Si-P alloy increases with increasing strain rate and decreasing deformation temperature, and the dynamic recrystallization temperature of alloy is around 700 ℃. The hot deformation activation energy for dynamic recrystallization is determined as 485.6 kJ/mol. The processing maps for the alloy obtained at strains of 0.3 and 0.5 were used to predict the instability regimes occurring at the strain rate more than 1 s-1 and low temperature （〈650 ℃）. The optimum range for the alloy hot deformation processing in the safe domain obtained from the processing map is 750-800 ℃ at the strain rate of 0.01-0.1 s i The characteristic microstructures predicted from the processing map agree well with the results of microstructural observations.

Constitutive equation and processing map for hot compressed as-cast Ti-43Al-4Nb-1.4W-0.6B alloy

High temperature compressive deformation behaviors of as-cast Ti-43Al-4Nb-1.4W-0.6B alloy was investigated at temperatures ranging from 1323 K to 1473 K, and strain rates from 0.001 s-1 to 1 s-1. The results indicated that the true stress-true strain curves show a dynamic flow softening behavior. The flow curves after the friction and the temperature compensations were employed to develop constitutive equations. The effects of temperature and the strain rate on the deformation behavior were represented by Zener-Holloman exponential equation. The influence of strain was incorporated in the constitutive analysis by considering the effect of the strain on material constants by a five-order polynomial. A revised model was proposed to describe the relationships among the flow stress, strain rate and temperature and the predicted flow stress curves were in good agreement with experimental results. Appropriate deformation processing parameters were suggested based on the processing map which was constructed from friction and temperature corrected flow curves, determined as 1343 K, 0.02 s-1 and were successfully applied in the canned forging of billets to simulate industrial work condition.

Processing map and hot deformation mechanism of novel nickel-free white copper alloy

Hot compression test of a novel nickel-free white alloy Cu?12Mn?15Zn?1.5Al?0.3Ti?0.14B?0.1Ce (mass fraction, %) was conducted on a Gleeble?1500 machine in the temperature range of 600?800 °C and the strain rate range of 0.01?10 s?1. The constitutive equation and hot processing map of the alloy were built up according to its hot deformation behavior and hot working characteristics. The deformation activation energy of the alloy is 203.005 kJ/mol. An instability region appears in the hot deformation temperature of 600?700 °C and the strain rate range of 0.32?10 s?1 when the true strain of the alloy is up to 0.7. Under the optimal hot deformation condition of 800 °C and 10 s?1 the prepared specimen has good surface quality and interior structure. The designed nickel-free alloy has very similar white chromaticity with the traditional white copper alloy (Cu?15Ni?24Zn?1.5Pb), and the color difference between them is less than 1.5, which can hardly be distinguished by human eyes.

High temperature deformation behavior and optimization of hot compression process parameters in TC11 titanium alloy with coarse lamellar original microstructure

The high temperature deformation behaviors of α＋β type titanium alloy TC11 （Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si） with coarse lamellar starting microstructure were investigated based on the hot compression tests in the temperature range of 950-1100 ℃ and the strain rate range of 0.001-10 s-1. The processing maps at different strains were then constructed based on the dynamic materials model, and the hot compression process parameters and deformation mechanism were optimized and analyzed, respectively. The results show that the processing maps exhibit two domains with a high efficiency of power dissipation and a flow instability domain with a less efficiency of power dissipation. The types of domains were characterized by convergence and divergence of the efficiency of power dissipation, respectively. The convergent domain in a＋fl phase field is at the temperature of 950-990 ℃ and the strain rate of 0.001-0.01 s^-1, which correspond to a better hot compression process window of α＋β phase field. The peak of efficiency of power dissipation in α＋β phase field is at 950 ℃ and 0.001 s 1, which correspond to the best hot compression process parameters of α＋β phase field. The convergent domain in β phase field is at the temperature of 1020-1080 ℃ and the strain rate of 0.001-0.1 s^-l, which correspond to a better hot compression process window of β phase field. The peak of efficiency of power dissipation in ℃ phase field occurs at 1050 ℃ over the strain rates from 0.001 s^-1 to 0.01 s^-1, which correspond to the best hot compression process parameters of ,8 phase field. The divergence domain occurs at the strain rates above 0.5 s^-1 and in all the tested temperature range, which correspond to flow instability that is manifested as flow localization and indicated by the flow softening phenomenon in stress-- strain curves. The deformation mechanisms of the optimized hot compression process windows in a＋β and β phase fields are identified to be spheroidizing and dynamic recrystallizing controlled by self-diffusion mechanism, respectively. The microstructure observation of the deformed specimens in different domains matches very well with the optimized results.

Hot deformation behavior of Al-9.0Mg-0.5Mn-0.1Ti alloy based on processing maps

Hot deformation behavior of extrusion preform of the spray-formed Al-9.0Mg-0.5Mn-0.1Ti alloy was studied using hot compression tests over deformation temperature range of 300-450 ℃ and strain rate range of 0.01-10 s-1. On the basis of experiments and dynamic material model, 2D processing maps and 3D power dissipation maps were developed for identification of exact instability regions and optimization of hot processing parameters. The experimental results indicated that the efficiency factor of energy dissipate （η） lowered to the minimum value when the deformation conditions located at the strain of 0.4, temperature of 300 ° C and strain rate of 1 s-1. The softening mechanism was dynamic recovery, the grain shape was mainly flat, and the portion of high angle grain boundary （〉15°） was 34%. While increasing the deformation temperature to 400 ° C and decreasing the strain rate to 0.1 s-1, a maximum value of η was obtained. It can be found that the main softening mechanism was dynamic recrystallization, the structures were completely recrystallized, and the portion of high angle grain boundary accounted for 86.5%. According to 2D processing maps and 3D power dissipation maps, the optimum processing conditions for the extrusion preform of the spray-formed Al？9.0Mg？0.5Mn？0.1Ti alloy were in the deformation temperature range of 340-450 ° C and the strain rate range of 0.01-0.1 s-1 with the power dissipation efficiency range of 38%？43%.

Hot deformation behavior and processing maps of as-cast Mg-8Zn-1Al-0.5Cu-0.5Mn alloy

The hot deformation behavior of as-cast Mg-8Zn-1Al-0.5Cu-0.5Mn alloy was studied by hot compression tests at temperatures of 200-350 °C and strain rates of 0.001-1 s-1.The results show that the flow stress increases significantly with increasing strain rate,and decreases as the temperature increases.The flow stress model based on the regression analysis was developed to predict the flow behavior of Mg-8Zn-1Al-0.5Cu-0.5Mn alloy during the hot compression,and the model shows a good agreement with experimental results.Meanwhile,the processing maps were established according to the dynamic materials model.The processing maps show that the increase of strain enlarges the instability domains,and the alloy shows good hot workability at high temperatures and low strain rates.

Flow stress behavior and processing map of extruded 7075Al/SiC particle reinforced composite prepared by spray deposition during hot compression

Hot compression tests of the extruded 7075Al/15%SiC (volume fraction) particle reinforced composite prepared by spray deposition were performed on Gleeble?1500 system in the temperature range of 300?450 °C and strain rate range of 0.001?1 s?1. The results indicate that the true stress?true strain curve almost exhibits rapid flow softening phenomenon without an obvious work hardening, and the stress decreases with increasing temperature and decreasing strain rate. Moreover, the stress levels are higher at temperature below 400 °C but lower at 450 °C compared with the spray deposited 7075Al alloy. Superplastic deformation characteristics are found at temperature of 450 °C and strain rate range of 0.001?0.1 s?1 with corresponding strain rate sensitivity of 0.72. The optimum parameters of hot working are determined to be temperature of 430?450 °C and strain rate of 0.001?0.05 s?1 based on processing map and optical microstructural observation.

Hot deformation and processing map of GH3535 superalloy

The hot deformation behavior of GH3535 superalloy was investigated by hot compression tests in the temperature range of 1000-1200 °C and strain rate range of 0.01-50 s-1. The activation energy is about 356.3 k J/mol, and the flow curves and processing map were developed on the basis of experimental data. The processing map exhibits a stable domain which occurs in the strain rate range of 0.01-1 s-1 at all the temperatures and a instable domain which occurs in the strain rate range of 1-50 s-1. Microstructural observations reveal that the full dynamic recrystallization（DRX） occurs in the conditions of（1150 °C, 0.01 s-1）,（1200 °C, 0.01 s-1） and（1200 °C, 0.1 s-1） with different grain sizes and undissolved carbides. The flow localization and cracks occur in the regime of flow instability.

Processing map for hot working of SiC_p/7075 Al composites

The hot deformation behaviour of 7075 aluminium alloy reinforced with 10%of SiC particles was studied by employing both"processing maps"and microstructural observations.The composite was characterized by employing optical microscope to evaluate the microstructural transformations and instability phenomena.The material investigated was deformed by compression in the temperature and strain rate ranges of 300-500℃and 0.001-1.0 s-1,respectively.The deformation efficiency was calculated by strain rate sensitivity(m)values obtained by hot compression tests.The power dissipation efficiency and instability parameters were evaluated and processing maps were constructed for strain of 0.5.The optimum domains and instability zone were obtained for the composites.The optimum processing conditions are obtained in the strain rate range of 0.1-0.9 s-1and temperature range of 390-440 ℃with the efficiency of 30%.

Hot working behavior of near alpha titanium alloy analyzed by mechanical testing and processing map

The hot deformation characteristics of the Ti-5.7Al-2.1Sn-3.9Zr-2Mo-0.1Si(Ti-6242S)alloy with an acicular starting microstructure were analyzed using processing map.The uniaxial hot compression tests were performed at temperatures ranging from 850 to 1000℃and at strain rates of 0.001-1 s-1.The developed processing map was used to determine the safe and unsafe deformation conditions of the alloy in association with the microstructural evolution by SEM and OM.It was recognized that the flow stress revealed differences in flow softening behavior by deformation at 1000℃compared to the lower deformation temperatures,which was attributed to microstructural changes.The processing map developed for typical strain of 0.7 in two-phase field exhibited high efficiency value of power dissipation of about 55%at 950℃and 0.001 s-1,basically due to extensive globularization.An increase in strain rate and a decrease in temperature resulted in a decrease in globularization ofαlamellae,whileαlamellar kinking increased.Eventually,the instability domain of flow behavior was identified in the temperature range of 850-900℃and at the strain rate higher than 0.01 s-1 reflecting the flow localization and adiabatic shear banding.By considering the power efficiency domains and the microstructural observations,the deformation in the temperature range of 950-1000℃and strain rate range of 0.001-0.01 s-1 was desirable leading to high efficiencies.It was realized that(950℃,0.001 s-1)was the optimum deformation condition for the alloy.

Characterization of hot deformation behavior of AA2014 forging aluminum alloy using processing map

The hot deformation behavior of AA2014forging aluminum alloy was investigated by isothermal compression tests attemperatures of350-480°C and strain rates of0.001-1s-1on a Gleeble-3180simulator.The corresponding microstructures of thealloys under different deformation conditions were studied using optical microscopy(OM),electron back scattered diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscopy(TEM).The processing maps were constructed with strains of0.1,0.3,0.5and0.7.The results showed that the instability domain was more inclined to occur at strain rates higher than0.1s-1and manifested in theform of local non-uniform deformation.At the strain of0.7,the processing map showed two stability domains:domain I(350-430°C,0.005-0.1s-1)and domain II(450-480°C,0.001-0.05s-1).The predominant softening mechanisms in both of the twodomains were dynamic recovery.Uniform microstructures were obtained in domain I,and an extended recovery occurred in domainII,which would lead to the potential sub-grain boundaries progressively transforming into new high-angle grain boundaries.Theoptimum hot working parameters for the AA2014forging aluminum alloy were determined to be370-420°C and0.008-0.08s-1.

Hot workability of as-cast and extruded ZE41A magnesium alloy using processing maps

The hot deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of as-cast and extruded ZE41A magnesium alloy were studied using processing maps. The compression tests were conducted on both as-cast and extruded alloys in the temperature range of 250-450 ℃ and strain rate range of 0.001-1.0 s^-1 to establish the processing map. The dynamic recrystallization （DRX） and instability zones were identified and validated through micrographs. The extruded ZE41A magnesium alloy shows higher flow stress, higher efficiency and lower instability regimes than as-cast alloy. The extruded ZE41A magnesium alloy achieves good hot workability due to grain refinement, decrease in porosity, hardening and strengthening of the material.

Research progress on microstructure evolution and hot processing maps of high strength β titanium alloys during hot deformation

High strength β titanium alloys are widely used in large load bearing components in the aerospace field. At present, large parts are generally formed by die forging. Different initial microstructures and deformation process parameters will significantly affect the flow behavior. To precisely control the microstructures, researchers have conducted many studies to analyze the microstructure evolution law and deformation mechanism during hot compression. This review focuses on the microstructure evolution of high strength β titanium alloys during hot deformation, including dynamic recrystallization and dynamic recovery in the single-phase region and the dynamic evolution of the α phase in the two-phase region. Furthermore, the optimal hot processing regions, instability regions,and the relationship between the efficiency of power dissipation and the deformation mechanism in the hot processing map are summarized. Finally, the problems and development direction of using hot processing maps to optimize process parameters are also emphasized.

Hot deformation behavior of uniform fine-grained GH4720Li alloy based on its processing map

The hot deformation behavior of uniform fine-grained GH4720Li alloy was studied in the temperature range from 1040 to 1130℃ and the strain-rate range from 0.005 to 0.5 s-1 using hot compression testing. Processing maps were constructed on the basis of compression data and a dynamic materials model. Considerable flow softening associated with superplasticity was observed at strain rates of 0.01 s 1 or lower. According to the processing map and observations of the microstructure, the uniform fine-grained microstructure remains intact at 1100℃ or lower because of easily activated dynamic recrystallization （DRX）, whereas obvious grain growth is observed at 1130℃. Metal- lurgical instabilities in the form of non-uniform microstrucmres under higher and lower Zener-Hollomon parameters are induced by local plastic flow and primary γ＇ local faster dissolution, respectively. The optimum processing conditions at all of the investigated strains are pro- posed as 1090-1130℃ with 0.084）.5 s-1 and 0.0054）.008 s-1 and 1040-1085℃ with 0.0054）.06 s-1.

Effect of Al_(3)Zr particles on hot-compression behavior and processing map for Al-Cu-Li based alloys at elevated temperatures

The influence of Al3Zr particles on the hot compression behavior and processing map(PM)of Al-Cu-Li based alloys under isothermal plane-strain compression in the temperature range of 400-500℃and at the strain rates of 0.01-10 s^-1 was investigated.The corresponding microstructure was analyzed using optical microscopy(OM),electron back-scattered diffraction(EBSD)and transmission electron microscope(TEM).The results showed that dynamic recovery(DRV)played a greater role than dynamic recrystallization(DRX)in dynamic softening.At low temperatures,the Al3Zr particles were the significant barriers to inhibit DRV and DRX grain growth.When the temperature reached 500℃,the Al3Zr particles readily spread along grain boundaries just like a necklace due to the dissolution of Al3Zr particles and rapid diffusion of Zr through grain boundary,resulting in generating the macroscopic cracks and forming an instability domain at 490-500℃,0.01 s^-1 in the PM.

Constitutive equation and processing map of equiatomic NiTi shape memory alloy under hot plastic deformation

In order to describe the deformation behavior and the hot workability of equiatomic NiTi shape memory alloy (SMA) during hot deformation, Arrhenius-type constitutive equation and hot processing map of the alloy were developed by hot compression tests at temperatures ranging from 500 to 1100 °C and strain rates ranging from 0.0005 to 0.5 s?1. The results show that the instability region of the hot processing map increases with the increase of deformation extent. The instability occurs in the low and high temperature regions. The instability region presents the adiabatic shear bands at low temperatures, but it exhibits the abnormal growth of the grains at high temperatures. Consequently, it is necessary to avoid processing the equiatomic NiTi SMA in these regions. It is preferable to process the NiTi SMA at the temperatures ranging from 750 to 900 °C.

The exact solution of Stokes' second problem including start-up process with fractional element

The start-up process of Stokes＇ second problem of a viscoelastic material with fractional element is studied. The fluid above an infinite flat plane is set in motion by a sudden acceleration of the plate to steady oscillation. Exact solutions are obtained by using Laplace transform and Fourier transform. It is found that the relationship between the first peak value and the one of equal-amplitude oscillations depends on the distance from the plate. The amplitude decreases for increasing frequency and increasing distance.

Hot Deformation Behavior and Processing Maps of As-cast Mn18Cr18N Steel

Hot deformation behavior of as-cast Mn18Cr18 N austenitic stainless steel was studied in the temperature range of 950-1200 ℃ and strain rate range of 0.001-1 s^（-1） using isothermal hot compression tests. The true stress-strain curves of the steel were characterized by hardening and subsequent softening and varied with temperatures and strain rates. The hot deformation activation energy of the steel was calculated to be 657.4 k J/mol, which was higher than that of the corresponding wrought steel due to its as-cast coarse columnar grains and heterogeneous structure. Hot processing maps were developed at different plastic strains, which exhibited two domains with peak power dissipation efficiencies at 1150 ℃/0.001 s^（-1） and 1200 ℃/1 s^（-1）, respectively. The corresponding microstructures were analyzed by optical microscopy（OM）, scanning electron microscopy（SEM）, and electron backscatter diffraction（EBSD）. It has been confirmed that dynamic recrystallization（DRX） controlled by dislocation slipping and climbing mechanism occurs in the temperature and strain rate range of 1050-1200 ℃ and 0.001-0.01 s^（-1）; And DRX controlled by twinning mechanism occurs in the temperature and strain rate range of 1100-1200 ℃, 0.1-1 s^（-1）. These two DRX domains can serve as the hot working windows of the as-cast steel at lower strain rates and at higher strain rates, respectively. The processing maps at different strains also exhibit that the instability region decreases with increasing strain. The corresponding microstructures and the less tensile ductility in the instability region imply that the flow instability is attributed to flow localization accelerated by a few layers of very fine recrystallized grains along the original grain boundaries.