A review of physicochemical and biological contaminants in drinking water and their impacts on human health

Clean drinking water is one of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.Despite significant progress in the water purification technology,many regions still lack access to clean water.This paper provides a review of selected water contaminants and their impacts on human health.The World Health Organization(WHO)guidelines and regional standards for key contaminants were used to characterise water quality in the European Union and UK.The concept of safe drinking water was explained based on the non-observed adverse effect level,threshold concentrations for toxic chemicals,and their total daily intake.Various techniques for monitoring water contaminants and the drinking water standards from five different countries,including the UK,USA,Canada,Pakistan and India,were compared to WHO recommended guidelines.The literature on actual water quality in these regions and its potential health impacts was also discussed.Finally,the role of public water suppliers in identifying and monitoring drinking water contaminants in selected developed countries was presented as a potential guideline for developing countries.This review emphasised the need for a comprehensive understanding of water quality and its impacts on human health to ensure access to clean drinking water worldwide.

Surface water quality and potential health risk assessments in Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan section of Xiangjiang River, China

The Changsha-Xiangtan-Zhuzhou City Group is a heavy industrial district and accepted as the serious pollution area in the Xiangjiang River basin.In this study,7 metals(Pb,Hg,Cd,As,Zn,Cu and Se)and the river water quality parameters including pH,dissolved oxygen(DO),Escherichia coli(E.coli),potassium permanganate index(CODMn),dichromate oxidizability(CODCr),five-day biochemical oxygen demand(BOD5),ammonia nitrogen(NH4+-N),total nitrogen(TN),total phosphorus(TP)and fluoride(F)in 18 sampling sites of the Changsha-Xiangtan-Zhuzhou section are monthly monitored in 2016,which is the year to step into the second stage of the“Xiangjiang River Heavy Metal Pollution Control Implementation Plan”.It is found that E.coli,TN and TP are the main pollutants in the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan section,and the pollution of heavy metal is not serious but As with potential risk to local people especially children should be concerned.In addition,Xiangtan city is mainly featured with heavy metal pollution,while Zhuzhou and Changsha city are both featured with other pollutants from municipal domestic sewage.

Assessment of water quality and safety based on multi-statistical analyses of nutrients, biochemical indexes and heavy metals

The purpose of this research was to better understand the water quality status of the Xiangjiang River, China, and to evaluate the risks posed by the river water. Precisely, ten water quality parameters including p H, dissolved oxygen(DO), Escherichia coli(E. coli), potassium permanganate index(CODMn), dichromate oxidizability(CODCr), five-day biochemical oxygen demand(BOD5), ammonia nitrogen(NH4+-N), total phosphorus(TP) and fluoride(F-) as well as metal(loid)s(Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Zn, Cu and Se) were monitored monthly in 2016 at 12 sampling sites throughout the Hengyang section of the Xiangjiang River. Concentrations of all parameters were presented according to rainy and dry seasons. They were compared with Chinese surface water standards and WHO drinking water limits to assess the sustainability of the river water status. Principal component analysis(PCA) revealed different pollution sources in different seasons. Dual hierarchical cluster analysis(DHCA) was applied to further classify the water quality variables and sampling sites. Besides, a risk assessment was introduced to evaluate the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic concerns of heavy metal(loid)s to human health. This research will help to optimize water monitoring locations and establish pollution reduction strategies on the preservation of public safety.

Contamination Levels of Some Selected Wells in Ogbomoso South Local Government Area, Nigeria and the Implications on Human Health

Incident of water-borne diseases is becoming more rampant in developing countries in the 21st century. This paper examines the contamination levels of some selected wells in Ogbomoso South Local Government Area (LGA), Oyo State, Nigeria. Methodology includes administering of structured questionnaire, field survey/sampling and laboratory analysis. The first set of questionnaires sought information on water sources, quality, supply and treatment. These were administered in 10 selected major locations which included: Ajegunle, Arinkinkin, Arowomole, Caretaker, Esanu-Aje, Ita-Olola, Malete, Oke-Alapata, Ora-Gada and Sunsun. The other set which was administered in 6 randomly selected Health Institutions viz: Oyo State General Hospital, Alaafia Tayo, Oore-Ofe, Bethel, Favour, and Grace Hospitals had questions on health-related issues. Ten (10) wells were randomly selected for sampling, one in each location. Results were compared with WHO’s Drinking Water Standards. Questionnaires revealed that residents depended mostly on wells for water supply;the water quality was low;supply was irregular;quantity was inadequate and boiling was the commonest treatment method. Health Officials established that some residents consumed improperly treated well water and there were some incidences of water-related diseases. Laboratory analyses showed that samples from Ajegumle and Esanu-Aje had colour values above the standard. Also, the pH was observed to vary from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline with values ranging between 6.0 and 8.1. Only Arinkinkin and Ita-Olola areas had permissible values of total alkalinity and Oke-Alapata had the highest chloride value of 400 mg/l while the highest nitrate concentration was at Esanu-Aje (127.58 mg/l). Study concludes that water supply in the area is not fully supportive to health. To abate the problem, it is recommended that aside boiling, each household should endeavour to coagulate, filter, soften and disinfect well water before consumption. Also, personal hygiene within each household must always be emphasized and improved upon.

Human health ambient water quality criteria for 13 heavy metals and health risk assessment in Taihu Lake

Heavy metals are widely concerning because of their toxicity,persistence,non-degradation and bioaccumulation ability.Iluman health ambient water quality criteria(AWQC)are specific levels of chemicals that can occur in water without harming human health.At present,most countries do not consider the effects of aquatic vegetables in deriving human health AWQC.Therefore,the intake of aquatic vegetables(Brasenia schreberi)was added to the derivation of human health AWQC and a health risk assessment for 13 heavy metals in Taihu Lake.The human health AWQC(consumption of water,fish and aquatic vegetables)values of 13 heavy metals ranged from 0.04(Cd)to 710.87μg/L(Sn),and the intake of B.schreberi had a very significant effect on the human health AWQC for Cu,with a more than 62-fold difference.The hazard quotients of As(2.8),Cd(1.6),Cr(1.4)and Cu(4.86)were higher than the safe level(HQ=1),indicating that As,Cd,Cr and Cu in Taihu Lake posed a significant health risk.Sensitivity analysis showed that the contribution rate of B.schreberi intake to the human health risk from Cu was 91.6%,and all results indicated that the risk of Cu in B.schreberi to human health should be of particular concern.This study adds the consideration of aquatic vegetable consumption to the traditional method of human health AWQC derivation and risk assessments for the first time,and this approach can promote the development of risk assessments and water quality criteria.

氟化物毒性效应与水质基准标准研究进展与展望

氟摄入过低或过高,都会对人体健康产生负面影响,此外,水体中的氟化物含量过高也会对水生生物产生危害。本文综述了氟化物的主要来源与分布,以及氟化物的毒性效应,从保护人体健康和水生生物2个角度分析了国内外氟化物水质基准/标准研究现状,并针对氟化物人体健康效应的双阈值性、氟化物摄入源地区差异性、氟化物水生生物毒性受温度、硬度和氯离子浓度等影响的特征,展望了我国氟化物水质基准研究和标准修订的未来发展方向:(1)深入探讨氟化物保护人体健康的最适区间;(2)将氟化物总摄入量的地区差异性纳入地方性水质标准制定的考虑范畴;(3)加强水质参数(如硬度、温度和氯离子浓度等)修正的氟化物水生生物水质基准研究。

中国臭氧环境空气质量基准制订方法研究

中国暂未形成臭氧环境空气质量基准制订技术方法体系,也未提出本土化的臭氧基准值。本文系统研究了美国和世界卫生组织臭氧空气质量基准编制的历程和制订方法,并结合中国实际提出臭氧环境空气质量基准制订应遵循科学性、风险预防性、本土性和差异性的基本原则;设计了保护公众健康和农作物的臭氧环境空气质量基准制订方法,主要包括文献筛选与质量评估、臭氧污染特征规律分析、臭氧危害识别和臭氧基准值推导四方面。基于保护人体健康的臭氧基准值推导方面,推荐采用世界卫生组织空气质量准则八步骤方法,针对本土臭氧长期队列研究不足的现状,提出可以确定长期基准值起点水平的替代方法;基于保护农作物的臭氧基准值推导方面,在比较了剂量响应法和通量响应法等常见的确定臭氧对植物损害临界水平方法后,结合中国国情,建立以典型农作物减产作为评估对象和危害、以AOT40为暴露指标、以5%相对损失可接受量确定植被临界水平的臭氧基准值推导方法。针对当前中国臭氧基准研究工作存在的不足,建议加强臭氧健康危害的本土队列研究,提高监测数据精度和代表性,加快制订中国臭氧环境空气质量基准文件,支撑面向美丽中国的环境空气质量标准制订。

长江流域氧氟沙星和金霉素的人体健康水质基准研究

抗生素因其潜在的生态和健康风险而引起全球关注。目前,中国长江流域抗生素的人体健康水质基准研究尚处于空白阶段,不利于国家进一步开展抗生素新污染物的管控和风险评估工作。为促进长江流域抗生素污染物的人体健康水质基准研究和人体健康风险评估工作的开展,分别在长江流域宜宾段(上游)、重庆段(上游)、宜昌段(上游)、武汉段(中游)和上海段(下游)采集并分析了表层水样和不同营养级鱼样中氧氟沙星(OFL)和金霉素(CTC)的含量(采样点涉及长江干流、支流、沿江水库以及沿江城镇密集区)。通过分析长江流域OFL和CTC在第2、3、4营养级鱼类的最终营养级生物累积系数(Afi),结合抗生素毒理参数和人群暴露参数,在饮水和消费水产品两种暴露途径下,推导出了长江流域OFL和CTC的人体健康水质基准(AWQC)。结果表明,长江流域水体中OFL和CTC的质量浓度分别为ND-1.55×10^(-4)、ND-4.17×10^(-4)mg·L^(-1),鱼体中OFL和CTC的质量分数分别为ND-4.94×10^(-2)、ND-0.108 mg·kg^(-1);OFL在第2、3、4营养级鱼类中的Afi分别为1.40×10^(3)、79.0、172 L·kg^(-1),CTC在第2、3、4营养级鱼类中的Afi分别为755、9.19×10^(4)、744 L·kg^(-1);OFL和CTC的AWQC分别为3.04、0.250μg·L^(-1)。该结果显示长江流域OFL的人体健康风险暂时处于可接受水平,但长江流域宜宾段局部水体CTC浓度高于推导出的水质基准则表明仍需重点关注长江流域CTC的浓度变化情况及其可能会带来的人体健康风险。研究结果可为科学制定长江流域抗生素的水环境质量标准和评估其人体健康风险提供参考依据。

水土质量调查评价与人群健康关系的融合路径研究

为有效支撑健康中国行动,我国正在探索开展健康地质调查,但受制于对健康地质概念的理解,统一的工作思路和技术方法还未形成,制约了此项工作在全国的推广。采用文献研究、定性分析及对比分析等方法,综述了国内外水土质量调查评价与地方病防治的最新研究成果,特别关注了在中国分布较广、影响较大的氟中毒、砷中毒、甲状腺肿(包括克汀病)、大骨节病和克山病等地方病的研究思路与最新进展。研究认为:健康地质调查与传统地质调查的最大区别是以影响人群健康的水土质量为核心指标,加强水岩相互作用研究方法和地下水流系统的运用,强化分析元素物质在岩-土-水-气-生地球表层圈层的迁移转化及暴露途径,坚持地球系统科学和生命科学相结合、岩水土气生等多要素系统监测与单因素优势观测相结合、地质环境与人群健康指标调查监测相结合、区域全面调查与典型案列分析相结合的工作思路,有序推进健康地质调查、监测、评价、区划、智慧服务等工作任务,部署开展保障安全供水、提供健康饮水、开发优质水和圈定劣质地块、开发优质耕地、规划有益元素产业园等核心内容,按照区域面上控制、流域精细刻画、村镇监测重点解剖、点上工程示范探索4个尺度,系统开展水土质量本底调查、资源属性分析和社会价值评估,构建水土质量与人群健康关系概念框架,筛选人群健康关键因素的管控阈值,从而满足人群对安全、公平、幸福、文化、可持续等健康需求。研究成果明确了当前健康地质调查的核心任务与主要方向,可为这一尚处于探索阶段工作的推广部署提供决策参考。

Occurrence of human pathogenic viruses in drinking water and in its sources:A review

Since many waterborne diseases are caused by human pathogenic viruses,virus monitoring of drinking water(DW)and DW sources is crucial for public health.Therefore,the aim of this review was to describe the occurrence of human pathogenic viruses in DW and DW sources;the occurrence of two viruses proposed as novel indicators of human faecal contamination(Peppermild mottle virus and Tobacco mosaic virus)was also reported.This research was focused on articles that assessed viral occurrence using molecular methods in the surface water used for DW production(SW-D),groundwater used for DW production(GW-D),DW and bottled-DW(BW).A total of 1544 studies published in the last 10 years were analysed,and 79 were ultimately included.In considering the detection methods,filtration is the most common concentration technique,while quantitative polymerase chain reaction is the most common quantification technique.Regarding virus occurrence in SW-D,GW-D,and DW,high percentages of positive samples were reported for adenovirus,polyomavirus and Pepper mild mottle virus.Viral genomes were frequently detected in SW-D and rarely in GW-D,suggesting that GW-D may be a safe DW source.Viral genomes were also detected in DW,posing a possible threat to human health.The lowest percentages of positive samples were found in Europe,while the highest were found in Asia and South America.Only three articles assessed viral occurrence in BW.This review highlights the lack of method standardization and the need for legislation updates.

川西安宁河上游冕宁段水质及人体健康风险评价

安宁河是攀西地区的母亲河,安宁河谷是四川省的第二大粮仓,评价安宁河上游水质情况,对保障该流域的饮水用水安全和安宁河流域高质量发展具有重要的意义。以安宁河上游冕宁段干流及主要支流的32个采样点的地表水样品为研究对象,采用相关性主成分分析法分析安宁河上游冕宁段地表水中各元素的来源,并利用内梅罗综合指数法、重金属污染指数法和健康风险模型评价法对安宁河上游冕宁段地表水中化学元素的组成特征及其对人体健康风险进行了评价。结果表明:(1)安宁河上游冕宁段地表水整体呈弱碱性,地表水中各元素的平均浓度从高到低依次为As、Ni、Cr、Zn、Sb、Mo、Mn、Hg、Cu和Co,43.75%的地表水样品中Hg单因子污染指数值大于1,其他元素的单因子污染指数值远小于1,地表水水质整体处于清洁水平;(2)地表水中5种元素的内梅罗综合污染指数从高到低依次为Hg、Cr、As、Zn、Cu,其中Cu、Zn、As和Cr无污染,局部地段地表水存在Hg污染,地表水不同采样点的重金属污染指数(HPI)差异显著;(3)地表水中pH值以及Co、Cr、Ni、As、Cu和Mn等元素主要受到自然因素与人为活动的影响,地表水中Sb元素主要为自然来源,地表水中Hg元素主要来源于农业活动;(4)研究区地表水通过饮水途径产生的化学非致癌物健康风险等级从高到低依次为Sb、Hg、Mo、Ni、Co、Cu、Zn和Mn,单一非致癌污染物和所有地表水采样点总化学非致癌健康风险整体较小,为可忽略水平(1.0×10^(-8)a^(-1)),但局部地段地表水中Cr和As等致癌元素浓度较高,存在一定的人体健康风险。

美国水环境质量基准体系

美国依据《清洁水法》建立了一套较完善的水环境质量基准体系,并开展了水生生物基准、人体健康基准、营养物基准、沉积物质量基准、细菌基准、生物学基准、野生生物基准和物理基准等方面的研究.在重点分析美国水环境质量基准体系、基准制定方法和研究进展的基础上,提出了我国开展水环境质量基准研究的建议,即提高对我国开展水环境质量基准研究的迫切性和重要性的认识,并根据我国的实际情况,建立一套适合我国国情的水环境基准体系和基准制订工作指南,同时做好国外水环境质量基准的采用与验证工作.

城市水环境健康风险评价

传统的水质化学监测等级评价体系能够客观反映水体的污染物水平,但无法直接反映水体污染物对人体健康的潜在危害。利用美国环境保护署(U.S.EPA)提出的水质健康风险评价模型,评价某市2001-2005年5个水质监测站周围水体中所含污染物对人体健康潜在危害的时空差异和源特征。结果表明,该市水体中所含污染物对人体健康潜在危害较大,72%的水质监测样本对人体健康潜在危害超过了国际辐射委员会(ICRP)推荐的最大可接受限值5.0×10-5a-1;水体污染主要发生在2001年、2003年和2005年,且主要集中在1#和2#水质监测站周围地区;化学致癌物是该市水体中危害人体健康的主要风险来源,各污染物对人体健康危害的风险度排序为:As>Cr+6>Cd;水体中非致癌污染物风险度排序为:F>Pb>Cu>NH3-N>Hg>CN-1>酚,在研究期内未对暴露人群构成明显的健康危害。水环境健康风险评价模型较传统的水质等级评价体系能够更直观地表征水体中各污染物对人体健康的潜在危害,有利于明确水体污染物治理的优先顺序,为水环境管理提供科学依据。

人体健康水质基准特征参数研究及应用

人体健康水质基准是指在摄入饮用水和水产品时,保护人群健康不受危害的相对应水体中污染物的浓度.我国近年来系统开展了水质基准的研究,但在人体健康水质基准方面的报道相对较少.为保护我国人群健康免受水体中污染物的危害,依据人体健康水质基准制定方法,对基准制定过程中涉及的我国人群暴露参数〔体重(BW)、饮水量(DI)和水产品摄入量(FI)〕和水环境参数〔溶解性有机碳(DOC)、颗粒态有机碳(POC)浓度以及水生生物脂质分数〕进行研究与总结,建议在制定我国人体健康水质基准时,普通人群暴露参数BW、DI和FI分别采用61.9 kg、2.785 L/d和0.0301 kg/d,水环境参数DOC和POC浓度分别采用2.68和0.73 mg/L,第2、3、4营养级淡水水生生物的脂质分数分别采用2.47%、3.08%、3.16%.基于我国人群暴露参数和水环境参数,推导了12种多环芳烃(PAHs)的人体健康水质基准,其中苯并[a]芘的基准值(4.53×10^(-4)μg L)最小,蒽的基准值(173μg L)最大.此外,在人体健康水质基准的制定过程中,除饮水途径外,建议充分考虑食用水产品对人体健康产生的危害效应;针对关注区域、年龄组与致癌风险水平不同造成的基准值的较大差异,建议在人体健康水质基准制定过程中对其予以充分考虑.

饮用水与人体健康关系研究

水是人的生存基础,是人体循环系统、消化系统、呼吸系统、泌尿系统正常工作的必要物质保证、生命活动不可缺少的关键要素。饮用水在人体水分的获取中发挥着重要作用,饮用水的优劣对健康有直接的影响。随着饮用水水质的恶化,饮用水与健康的关系研究已日益引起人们的重视。本文叙述了饮用水与人体健康关系的形成与发展、对饮用水与人体健康关系研究的内容、方法及主要研究成果进行了综述,提出了目前研究中存在的主要问题,最后展望了饮用水与人体健康关系研究的重点领域和方向。

我国农业土壤质量基准建立的方法体系研究

农业土壤质量基准的研究,对于保护农业土壤资源、农产品安全以及人体健康具有重要意义.为加快我国农业土壤质量基准的建立,迫切需要开展我国农业土壤质量基准建立方法体系的理论研究.本文依据国外先进国家或地区土壤质量基准研究经验与进展,包括借鉴目前已有的土壤环境质量基准建立的3种基本方法,对基于我国国情的农业土壤质量基准建立的方法体系进行了较为深入的理论探讨,提出了适合我国农业土壤质量基准建立方法体系中基本方法的确立、生态受体的选择、评价指标的选取以及土壤分类的解决方案,最后对这一重要命题今后的研究方向提出了相关建议.

国际水质基准对我国水质标准制修订工作的启示

环境质量标准的首要目标是保护人体健康,美国国家环境保护局(US EPA)和世界卫生组织(WHO)分别在地表水水质健康基准和生活饮用水水质基准方面开展了长期深入的研究,并形成了整套方法体系。2015年,我国新的《环境保护法》也增加了要求科学确定符合我国国情的环境基准的规定。因此,有必要从项目筛选及限值的制修订方法学等方面梳理国际先进基准,从而借鉴发达国家水质基准的制修订原则和方法,为自主建立符合国情的国家水质基准及标准提供参考并提出工作建议。

新疆喀什平原水文地球化学特征和水质评价

对喀什平原355个水样进行了22项常量分析和24项微量元素的测试.在此基础上,制订了水质评价分级基准(1～V级),采用模糊数学综合评判法和综合指数法对饮水和灌溉水进行了水质评价.

海水淡化后水质特征及对人体健康影响

目的讨论海水淡化水水质特征及对人体健康的影响,说明海水淡化水作为饮用水需要注意的问题。方法采用文献检索的方法,了解目前海水淡化的处理方法及水质特征,结合WHO饮用水指南和我国饮用水标准阐述淡化水的水质特征,淡化水的安全性和对输配水管网的影响。结果海水经淡化处理后,硬度和碱度降低,有较强的侵蚀性。同时钙、镁、氟等营养元素的含量也显著下降,硼和溴化物的水平较高。因为水处理工艺的不同,淡化水中还可能出现新的消毒副产物和其他污染物。结论我国现行的居民生活饮用水标准对于淡化水的适用性还需要进一步考察,应建立有效的监测系统,对淡化水的水质及其影响因素进行监测。

基于风险评估的饮用水水质标准制定方法探究

回顾了国际上饮用水水质标准制定方法及其历程,分析了中国现阶段水质标准存在的问题与挑战,并重点介绍了在水专项连续三个五年计划支持下开展饮用水水质标准研究取得的成果:包括在全国重点城市及重点流域开展水质调查,提出中国饮用水高风险污染物清单;建立适合中国人群暴露特征的水质标准制定技术,并在《生活饮用水卫生标准》修订中进行了应用。