Characterisation of Human-Wildlife Conflicts around the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

The history of mankind contains so many illustrations of well-classified and violent struggles against various animals over crop production in agricultural fields, attacks on human life or competition in order to have access to certain natural resources. The aim of this study is to characterise the human-wildlife conflicts that occur around the KBNP, especially with regard to primates. Surveys were carried out in 260 households selected using the snowball method. The results showed that human-wildlife conflicts around the KBNP are characterised by the destruction of crops in riparian fields by monkeys, chimpanzees and gorillas, the destruction of houses, physical attacks and zoonoses. Despite the conservation and protection measures for wildlife and local populations put in place by the Park’s managers, conflicts between local populations and the Park’s wild animals are still visible. These conflicts lead to the detention of wild animals by local people roaming in the villages and to poaching on the Park’s boundaries. The weakness of the community management policy on the part of the park managers and the resentment of the indigenous peoples towards the restriction of their access to natural resources are the major constraints on the sustainable management of conflicts between the local populations and the wild animals in the KBNP. The strategies for the sustainable resolution of human-wildlife conflicts around the KBNP must be geared towards and integrated into a community conservation approach.

Assessing Human-Wildlife Conflict in the Periphery of Loango National Park in Gabon

Human-Wildlife Conflict in Gabon is a reality occurring in almost all protected areas in the country. These conflicts create real threats both for the survival of wildlife species and of human beings. This study was carried out at the periphery of Loango National Park in Gabon. This area is particular of seeing elephants wandering around villages. Respondents for the study were drawn from a wide range of stakeholders (State administrators, farmers and NGOs). Data was collected through administration of structured questionnaires and interview guide on the;socio-economic activities. Crops produced/destroyed. Animals are involved and economic loss is incurred due to conflicts. Data was analysed using SPSS version 16 and Kobo tool box. For qualitative data chi-square, descriptive statistic and linear regression model were also used. The results of the study showed that the elephants account for (60.1%) of crop destroyed followed by Ungulates (30.4%) and lastly by rodents (0.9%). The economic damage caused by the wildlife to crops valued at 72,084 USD in the zone in 2022. An urgent solution to this conflict is needed because the consequences are visible as well as the illegal repression by communities that have led to poisoning and killing of wildlife in the study area.

Human-wildlife conflict:A bibliometric analysis during 1991–2023

The escalating conflict between human and wildlife due to competing demands for limited space and resources has raised concerns worldwide,and understanding the dynamics of this conflict is crucial for devising effective strategies and policies.The present study is an attempt to carry out a bibliometric analysis of the published literature on the topic of human-wildlife conflict(HWC)for the period of January 1991–February 2023.For carrying out the analysis of the data obtained from Web of Science,the‘Bibliometrix'tool,developed through the R programming language,was used.The findings of the study revealed that a total of 1592 documents have been published on the HWC research topic from January 1991 to February 2023 within 338 sources.It is observed that the number of publications has continuously increased since 1991,with an annual growth rate of 5.16%.A total of 4995 authors have contributed to the targeted research field.Of the 388 sources,the journal‘Biological Conservation'is the most relevant and productive,followed by‘Oryx'and‘Human Dimensions of Wildlife'.Based on the country production analysis,authors from 110 countries have contributed to the field,and the USA has the highest frequency of publications on HWC,followed by the UK and Australia.The USA also has the highest multiple country publications and has collaborated with 88 countries,with the highest frequency of collaboration with the UK,followed by India,Australia,and South Africa.The most frequently used keywords include‘human-wildlife conflict',‘conservation',‘conflict',‘human-wildlife',‘wildlife',‘wildlife management',‘livestock',‘management',‘coexistence',and‘carnivore'.The present study identifies the most prolific authors,sources,institutions,and countries,as well as the study hotspots in the subject of HWC,which may assist researchers in finding the best working and publication platforms.Further,it may also help them identify reliable research partners to acquire the best findings and develop more effective strategies and policies to address the issue.

Patterns of human-wildlife conflict and compensation practices around Daxueshan Nature Reserve, China

Understanding the spatial patterns of human-wildlife conflict is essential to inform management decisions to encourage coexistence, but it is constrained by the lack of spatially-explicit data. We collected spatially-implicit data of human-wildlife conflicts from 2009-2015 around Daxueshan Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China, and investigated the patterns and drivers of these conflicts. A questionnaire was also designed to capture local resident attitudes toward insurance-based compensation for the losses caused by targeted wildlife. We found that the Asiatic black bear （Ursus thibetanus） was the most conflict-prone animal around the reserve, followed by the rhesus macaque （Macaca mulatta） and Southeast Asian sambar （Cervus equinus）. Conflicts were unevenly distributed among seasons, villages, and communities, with several grids identified as conflict hotspots. Poisson models revealed that human-bear conflicts were negatively related to distance to the reserve and proportion of forest, but positively correlated to the proportion of cropland. Binomial models showed that communities affected by crop depredation were positively correlated with the proportion of cropland and negatively correlated with distance to the reserve, whereas communities affected by livestock depredation were negatively correlated with the proportion of cropland. The insurance-based scheme has compensated over 90% of losses, to the satisfaction of 90.6% of respondents. Our results suggest that human-bear conflict could be potentially reduced by eliminating food crops near the reserve boundary and livestock grazing at conflict hotspots.In addition, the insurance-based scheme could be replicated at a broader scale with improvement in loss assessment.

Economic Analysis of Electric Fencing for Mitigating Human-wildlife Conflict in Nepal

Human-wildlife conflict is one of the biggest conservation challenges throughout the world.Various conservation strategies have been employed to limit these impacts,but often they are not adequately monitored and their effectiveness assessed.Recently,electric fencing has been constructed as a means to mitigate humanwildlife conflict surrounding many Nepalese protected areas.To date,there are no other studies analyzing the cost effectiveness and efficacy of fencing for conservation.This study aims to examine the cost effectiveness of electric fencing in the eastern sector of Chitwan National Park,Nepal,where the fencing has recently been constructed.Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros（Rhinoceros unicornis）,wild boar（Sus scrofa）,Asian elephant（Elephas maximus）,and tiger（Panthera tigris） were the main wildlife species involved in human-wildlife conflict in the buffer zone area surrounding the park,where the fencing was deployed.Electric fencing was significantly effective in reducing crop damage by 78% and livestock depredation by 30%–60%.Human mortality was not reduced significantly in the study areas and continued at low levels.Our analysis suggested that total net present value of the cost of electric fence in Kagendramalli User Committee（KMUC） and Mrigakunja User Committee（MKUC） was 1 517 959 NPR（Nepalese Rupees,21 685 USD） and 3 530 075 NPR（50 429 USD） respectively up to the fiscal year 2009/10.Net present benefit in KMUC and MKUC was 16 301 105 NPR（232 872 USD） and 38 304 602 NPR（547 208 USD） respectively up to 2009/10.The cost-benefit ratio of electric fence up to base fiscal year 2009/10 in KMUC is 10.73,whereas MKUC is 10.85.These results illustrate that the electric fencing program is economically and socially beneficial in reducing human-wildlife conflict（crop damage and livestock depredation） around the protected areas where large mammals occur.

Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Paschim Kusaha Village of Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Sunsari District, Nepal

Human-wildlife conflict has been one of the most trouble-causing issues in many areas of Nepal including Eastern Nepal. This study assessed the human-wildlife conflict status in Paschim Kusaha Village of Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve(KTWR), Sunsari District, Nepal. Data were collected from 47 respondents of different households through questionnaire surveys and formal and informal interviews. Results revealed that the most destructive wild animals were wild elephants, wild boar,and wild water buffalo and the most raided crops were paddy(63.83 %), maize(19.15%), and potato(17.02%). Most of the encounters between humans and wildlife were recorded at night(after dusk and before dawn)(78.72%). Local people were suffering from damage of physical properties, human harassment or nuisance, and depredation of cropland due to wild animals.A total of 70% of respondents had a positive attitude towards conservation despite disturbing human mortality records(22deaths in the last five years) from the reserve area and surrounding. Awareness of wildlife behavior together with conservation and easy access to compensation schemes were suggested to minimize conflicts in the area.

Understanding human-leopard conflict in the ‘Mid-hill’ region of western Nepal

Livestock rearing and agriculture are the main sources of community-based livelihoods in western Nepal.Across the rural mid-hills region of Gandaki Province,leopards are the top predator and frequently depredate livestock and attack humans.Spatiotemporal patterns of human-leopard conflicts(HLC) in Nepal are poorly known at the provincial and national scales,which are essential to formulating effective conflict mitigation strategies and implementing them in the field.This study aims to analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of HLC by applying Maxent modeling to covariates relating to known and registered conflict cases(n=842) collected from Nepalese government offices.We found that cases of HLC have been increasing significantly over the past five years.We also concluded that mid-elevation,south-facing slopes were more susceptible to HLC,but that mean annual temperature was by far the most important predictor of HLC;overall livestock density and proximity to roads were also important,but secondarily so.Although we found the increase in human fatalities to 2.16/year was significant(p<0.05),overall human injuries were down slightly,though not significantly(5.16/year;p>0.05).However,we also found an increasing trend in livestock depredation rates for this same five-year period(p<0.05),which averaged 159.6 head/year among incidents reported.We also found that winter was the main season when depredations occurred,and that goats were the most depredated of all livestock.A total US $86,892.25($17,378.45/year) of economic losses were incurred by communities during this time,with 78.57% of the total value reimbursed as compensatory relief through the government’s relief fund.We recommend that the use of predator-proof livestock corrals,greater awareness in local communities about wildlife behavior,better animal husbandry and security practices,and a more efficient compensation program,can improve coexistence between leopard populations and human communities in western Nepal.

A study on the dilemmas of resource utilization and tourism in Africa

This paper explores,explains and discusses issues around the dilemma between local conservation of natural resources(often,endangered species and habitats)and tourism needs in Africa.Often and in constitutional terms,local people have a right to exploit and use resources endowed in their local area.However,tourists often are interested in viewing the vegetation and animal resources undisturbed.Inevitably,there is an undeclared animosity of values and interests between local communities and tourists and state agencies.As a result,the dilemma is thus of governance.The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the governance dilemma of resource utilization and tourism in Africa in a bid to create an informed stewardship framework for sustainability.This is achieved by way of case studies and narratives from Africa.As such,this paper will be a review literature on how different communities perceive tourism and derive livelihoods from their immediate environment.It also explains how the external factors influence local needs and interests.A more sustainable and operational framework that reduces friction among stakeholders is suggested.

The African Elephant (<i>Loxodonta africana</i>): Mini-Review of an Endangered Species

Humankind is responsible for conditioning the distribution of species, including the African elephant. From its great physical form to its fascinating social behaviour, Loxodonta africana can trigger an admiration in some and be undervalued by others, often ending up being a victim of human activities. Increasingly, the apparent impossibility of the coexistence of these two species represents a problem for the conservation of the large African mammal. Here it was reviewed the published bibliography about the African savannah elephant (L. africana), between July 2015 and December 2019. The Web of Science (WoS) database enabled the search for the words “Loxodonta africana”. From this research, we obtained 310 articles, 149 of them were analysed. Elephants have characteristics that define its uniqueness that are constantly reported, such as: its cognition and extraordinary memory, factors that influence its movements and its distribution, its specific vocalization and the strong dependence on social connections. Threats to the conservation of the species and the urgency of interventions are also an important subject of discussion. Poaching for ivory represents a major obstacle on conservation and has been drastically reducing the number of elephant populations and causing future consequences for those who thrive. Law enforcement in reducing/prohibit poaching has proven to be insufficient, so there is an urgent need to combat the demand for ivory. Also, it is necessary to bypass the conflict, promote tolerance and enable cohabitation. We believe that educating human populations to better understand the species may be the difference to guarantee a future for the species. Conservationists may be the enablers of these educational actions, however, to make the difference, it is necessary to know the species in detail. Mastering knowledge in these behavioural areas will contribute to improve mitigation strategies, which could make the difference to guarantee a future for the species.

People and Parks in Kenya： Toward Co-Existence？ The Case of Saiwa Swamp and Kakamega Forest Natural Areas

Over the years, protected areas have largely been associated with tourism activities where the global meets the local. Indeed, it is widely acknowledged that ＂parks are for people and forever＂. This implies that conservation areas must serve different and divergent interest groups for posterity. Moreover, amidst the proposal to manage natural resources at a local level, it should be appreciated that the local people have continuously been alienated. This paper discusses the conservation areas of Kakamega Forest and Saiwa Swamp in Western Kenya. Through questionnaire interviews with the local communities and natural area managers, it investigates the link among the local communities, protected areas, and tourism as envisaged in the Ecotourism Kenya motto. It concludes that sometimes tourism can be so close to the local people yet so far. Thus, for this linkage to occur, tourists should be fascinated by the cultural aspect （if provided by the local people） and that the local people should seize the opportunity to benefit from such visits.

Community Perspectives on the Use of Recycled Plastic Posts in Mitigating Livestock Predation in Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya

In the last few decades, the impacts of human activities on ecosystem have rapidly increased resulting to detrimental ecosystem changes. Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is one of the greatest consequences of human impacts on the environment. Although HWC has been there for decades, its intensity seems to be growing with the spread of human settlements, changes in land use patterns and diminishing suitable natural habitats for wildlife. To mitigate HWC, various strategies have been devised and implemented. This study focused on predator-proof bomas (PPBs) approach that is ongoing in Amboseli ecosystem. The aim was to establish reasons behind the slow adoptions of the recycled plastics poles by owners of PPBs that were constructed using wooden posts between the years 2010 to 2013. Randomly selected 36 PPB homestead owners were interviewed and the physical structures of their PPBs assessed. Results revealed a positive relationship between PPB size and number of poles damaged;and a significant association between the damaged posts and the number of indigenous posts replaced in the three group ranches (X2 = 34.9331, df = 2, p < 0.05). Most of the respondents (89%) cited posts and doors (72%) as the main parts that needed repairs. About 80% of the respondents would recommend the plastic posts for use in constructing new PPBs by other people. Most of the PPB beneficiaries whose PPBs were constructed in 2010-2013 have opted for an “easy” alternative source of posts from the sparsely distrusted trees around their homesteads. It is recommend that an open window period should be tried to entice the wooden post PPBs owners to adopt the recycled plastic posts. This may necessitate upgrading the existing old wooden bomas to a “smart PPBs”. It is suggested that the “smart PPBs” should not only have recycled plastic posts but also “free” energy saving stoves in each household to reduce the level of deforestation.

Predator-Proof Bomas as a Tool in Mitigating Human-Predator Conflict in Loitokitok Sub-County Amboseli Region of Kenya

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) arises when wildlife shares the same physical space with humans. HWC, particularly livestock predation results in great negative impacts both to pastoralist and carnivores. Various approaches including compensation, livestock guarding, translocation of the problematic predator, and predator-proof bomas (PPB) have been used to mitigate such conflicts. We assessed PPB in mitigating human-predator conflict in Loitokitok sub-county by focusing on its effectiveness, most problematic predator, community’s perceptions, and comparing the PPB and traditional bomas characteristics. Data were obtained from 90 homesteads in Olgulului, Mbirikani and Kimana/Tikondo group ranches. Correlation and paired t-tests were used to analyze the data. Our findings suggest that the boma sizes correlated with the total number of livestock in the boma (r = 0.386, n = 90, p = 0.000) but not the number of people. Hyena and lion accounted for the highest loss of shoats and cattle, with hyena mostly killing shoats (37%) and lions preying largely on cattle (34%). The most problematic predator was as hyena (68%). We found positive relationships between the most problematic predator and total number of livestock (r = 0.319, n = 90, p = 0.002), and boma circumference (r = 0.295, n = 90, p = 0.005). Livestock predation was high in boma during the wet seasons (April, September, October and December). The erection of PPB reduced livestock predation by 91.11% (n = 45) and time spend guarding livestock at night. We recommend a continuous maintenance of the PPB as a long term solution to livestock loss at night and a close guarding of livestock during the day by adults to reduce day time predations.

Human-carnivore conflict in China: a review of current approaches with recommendations for improved management

Human-wildlife conflict(HWC)is a conservation concern that increasingly threatens the continued existence of some of the world’s most endangered species.With an increase in human population,urban sprawl and sub­sequent encroachment on wild land,human and wildlife interaction has become inevitable.In the majority of cases,this interaction results in a negative outcome for humans,wildlife or both.In China,these key elements,along with a decrease in wild prey species,have resulted in the expansion of HWC encounters,and the need for alleviating this conflict has become a conservation priority.Loss of human life,livestock and/or crops is most often the catalysts that fuel HWC.Techniques to alleviate conflict around the world have included preventative measures and mitigation techniques,such as financial compensation and other incentive programs.Both types of measures have had variable success.We review the current status of human-carnivore conflict management in China,and,drawing lessons from around the globe,we make recommendations for improving conservation management in China.For example,an increase in law enforcement in nature reserves is vital to reducing hu­man disturbance in prime carnivore habitat,thereby reducing conflict encounters.Also,modifications to current wildlife compensation programs,so that they are linked with preventative measures,will ensure that moral haz­ards are avoided.Furthermore,investigating the potential for a community self-financed insurance scheme to fund compensation and increasing efforts to restore wild prey populations will improve the outcome for wildlife conservation.Ultimately,HWC management in China will greatly benefit from an integrative approach.

=actors influencing wild boar damage to agricultural crops in Sardinia （Italy）

Crop damage by wildlife is a frequent source of human-wildlife conflict. Understanding which fac-tors increase the risk of damage is crucial to the development of effective management strategies.The aims of this study were to provide a general description of agricultural damage caused by wildboar Sus scrofa meridionalis over a 7-year period in North-eastern Sardinia （Mediterranean Italy）,and to formulate a predictive model of damage risk. We recorded a total of 221 cases of wild boardamage, with economic losses amounting to 483,982 Euros. Damage events mostly involved vine-yards, meadows and oat fields, and were characterized by a peak incidence in summer and earlyautumn, and a minimum in spring. Damaged fields were characterized by an increasing presenceof permanent crops, a decreasing presence of woodlands, maquis and urban areas, and a reduceddistance from shelter areas （forests and shrublands）. The analysis of spatiotemporal variation ofboar-induced damage and the identification of factors that augment the risk of damage providesessential information for contributing to the development of a more effective plan for managingwild boar populations.

Conflict on the Range: Evaluating Driving Factors of Attitudes Toward Prey Species in Qilianshan

Human-wildlife conflict（HWC） is a global conservation issue of increasing concern,and understanding the factors driving conflict is crucial for preventing or mitigating it. In many parts of China,large human populations and increasing development has led to an escalation in HWC with both carnivore and prey species. In this paper we assess herder attitudes toward blue sheep（Pseudaois nayaur,Hodgson,1833）,white lipped deer（Carvus albirostris,Przewalski,1883）,red deer（Cervus elaphus,Linnaeus,1758）,and marmot（Marmota himalayana Hodgson,1841） through interview-based surveys conducted in 46 households across 8 villages in Qilianshan National Nature Reserve,Gansu,China. We also examine the perceived impact of three ecological-restoration policies（anti-grazing,sustainable grazing,and grass-planting policies） on livelihoods,and how this affects attitudes toward wildlife. Herders reported neutral attitudes toward wildlife species in general,but reported negative attitudes towards blue sheep. Mixed-effects modeling revealed that herder attitudes toward the target species varied significantly across villages,but other socioeconomic variables had limited explanatory power for attitudes. Furthermore,we found that while policy implementation was negatively perceived by herders,anti-grazing policy implementation and total policy implementation were positively correlated with positive attitudes toward wildlife,highlighting a potential gap between perceived threats and actual threats. Finally,we show that the leading cause of reported livestock death is preventable disease,alleviation of which may help improve attitudes toward wildlife.

Predicting wild boar damages to croplands in a mosaic of agricultural and natural areas

Crop damages by wildlife is a frequent form of human-wildlife conflict. Identifying areas where the risk of crop damages is highest is pivotal to set up preventive measures and reduce conflict. Species distribution models are routinely used to predict species distribution in response of environmental changes. The aim of this paper was assessing whether species distribution models can allow to identify the areas most at risk of crop damages, helping to set up management strategies aimed at the mitigation of human-wildlife conflicts. We obtained data on wild boar Sus scrofa damages to crops in the Alta Murgia National Park, Southern Italy, and related them to landscape features, to identify areas where the risk of wild boar damages is highest. We used MaxEnt to build species distribution models. We identified the spatial scale at which landscape mostly affects the distribution damages, and optimized the regularization parameter of models, through an information-theoretic approach based on AIC. Wild boar damages quickly increased in the period 2007-2011; cereals and legtmaes were the crops more affected. Large areas of the park have a high risk of wild boar damages. The risk of damages was related to low cover of urban areas or olive grows, intermediate values of forest cover, and high values of shrubland cover within a 2-km radius. Temporally independent validation data demonstrated that models can successfully predict damages in the future. Species distribution models can accurately identify the areas most at risk of wildlife damages, as models calibrated on data collected during only a subset of years correctly predicted damages in the subsequent year [Current Zoology 60 （2）： 170-179, 2014].

Perceived damage and areas of needed research for wildlife pests of California agriculture

Many wildife species cause extensive damage to a variety of agricultural commodities in California,with es-timates of damage in the hundreds of millions annually.Given the limited availability of resources to solve all human-wildlife conficts,we should focus management efforts on issues that provide the greatest benefit to ag-ricultural commodities in California.This survey provides quantitative data on research needs to better guide future efforts in developing more effective,practical and appropriate methods for managing these species.We found that ground squirels,pocket gophers,birds,wild pigs,coyotes and voles were the most common agricul-tural wildlife pest species in California.The damage caused by these species could be quite high,but varied by agricultural commodity.For most species,common forms of damage included loss of crop production and di-rect death of the plant,although livestock depredation was the greatest concern for coyotes.Control methods used most frequently and those deemed most effective varied by pest species,although greater advancements in control methods were listed as a top research priority for all species.Collectively,the use of toxicants,biocon-trol and trapping were the most preferred methods for control,but this varied by species.In general,integrated pest management practices were used to control wildlife pests,with a special preference for those approaches that were efficacious and quick and inexpensive to apply.This information and survey design should be useful in establishing research and management priorities for wildlife pest species in California and other similar re-gions.