Influence of Transportation Accessibility on Urban-rural Income Disparity and Its Spatial Heterogeneity

Transportation accessibility has been treated as an important means of reducing the urban-rural income disparity.However,only a few studies have examined the effects of different types of transportation accessibility on urban-rural income disparity and their spatial heterogeneity.Based on data from 285 prefecture-level(and above)Chinese cities in 2000,2005,2010,2015,and 2020,this study uses spatial econometric models to examine how highway accessibility and railway accessibility influence the urban-rural income disparity and to identify their spatial heterogeneity.The result reveals that highway accessibility and railway accessibility have‘coreperiphery’ring-like circle structures.The urban-rural income disparity exhibits strong spatial clustering effects.Both highway accessibility and railway accessibility are negatively associated with urban-rural income disparity,and the former having a greater effect size.Moreover,there is a substitution effect between highway accessibility and railway accessibility in the whole sample.Furthermore,these associations differ in geographic regions.In the central region,highway accessibility is more important in reducing the urban-rural income disparity,but its effect is weakened with the increase of railway accessibility.In the western region,railway accessibility has a larger effect on narrowing the urban-rural income disparity,and this effect is strengthened by the increase of highway accessibility.We conclude that improving transportation accessibility is conducive to reducing the urban-rural income disparity but its effect is spatial heterogenetic.Highways and railways should be developed in a coordinated manner to promote an integrated transport network system.

The Approaches to Narrowing Urban-Rural Income Gap——From the Perspective of Rural Social Security

From the situations about the incomes and life quality of the urban and rural residents,the thesis briefly introduces the status quo of the urban-rural income gap and explores the impact of the income gap on social economy:firstly,it hampers economic development;secondly,it is detrimental to the social development.Then the thesis analyzes the role of a sound social security in narrowing urban-rural income gap:at first,it broadens the institutional environment of improving the agricultural efficiency;secondly,it eliminates the uncertainties influencing the farmers' income;thirdly,it improves the farmers' capacity to increase income;at last,it enhances the farmers' consciousness of wealth.Next the thesis inquires into the problems existing in the system of rural social security:the first problem is more obviously fragmented system;the second is inadequate security projects and narrower coverage;the third is an obvious lack of equality in urban and rural security;the fourth is even less sound management system;the last is the lagging of legislation.Afterwards the thesis proposes the countermeasures and suggestions to improve the system of rural social security and narrow urban-rural income gap:firstly,to integrate the social security system in rural areas;secondly,to perfect security projects and enhance the security system;thirdly,to integrate the administrative management of social security;at last,to enforce the legal system.

Research on the Impact of Rural Labour Forces Transfer on the Urban-rural Income Based on Economics of Discrimination

On the basis of the analytical frame of discrimination, the thesis establishes a model of transfer of rural labour forces into city, and researches the impact of rural labour forces transfer on urban-rural income. The results show that the transfer of rural labour forces into city can increase urban-rural income and bridge the income gap between city and village to a certain extent. However, the capital stock of city in China is greatly more than that of the village, so the rural labour forces transfer cannot eliminate the urban-rural income gap completely. In order to elevate the rural income level in China and narrow urban-rural income gap, the government should paint a picture with two brushes at the same time: on one hand, the government should promote the transfer of rural labour forces into city, and change the status quo of dual urban-rural labour forces market structure; on the other hand, the government should increase the input in rural areas and promote the increase of rural capital stock so as to further increase rural residents' income in the process of labour forces transfer.

Influence of social capital on farmer household income gap:total effect and structural effect

Based on the survey data of typical villages in Shaanxi Province,China,the effect of social capital on the income gap of farmers' households was analyzed using the Shapley value of the total amount of social capital and the social capital structure.The results show the following:first,social capital can expand the household income gap,and the effect of this index on the household income gap is 7.54%.Second,the indexes of the social capital dimension can expand the household income gap,and the structural effects of the household income gap on social networks,social trust,and social participation are 3.17%,3.64%,and 0.65%,respectively.Third,no dimension of the path is the same as the effect on the household income gap.

Empirical Analysis on Financial Development,Urbanization,and Urban and Rural Resident Income in Jiangsu Province

On the basis of the time series data of Jiangsu Province in 1990-2013,this paper made an empirical analysis on the dynamic relation between financial development,urbanization,and urban and rural resident income,and income gap.Studies have shown that expansion of financial development scale and increase in financial development efficiency can promote increase in urban and rural resident income.However,due to existence of rural financial repression problem,the increase in financial efficiency widens the urban and rural income gap;the urbanization level of Jiangsu Province remains stable stage;the increase in urbanization level practically raises urban and rural resident income level.Since the traditional extensive growth mode of urbanization lacks concern for balanced urban and rural development,urbanization development widens the urban and rural income gap.In view of these,it came up with policy recommendations including deepening financial reform,expanding the scale of rural financial institutions,increasing rural financial efficiency,and attaching great importance to the quality of urbanization development.

Income Gap and the Risk of MiddleIncome Trap Facing China

International experience shows that economic stagnation and deterioration of income distribution are both the cause and effect of each other and also reinforce each other.Such a relationship may put some high-growth countries into the middle-income trap.Income levels in China are above average,but economic growth is decelerating.At such a time,China should attach great importance to addressing the widening income gap.This paper attempts to integrate official data on income with researchers' surveys to examine income distribution in China.It reveals the causes for unequal and unfair income distribution and illustrates the policy significance of reforming primary and secondary distributions to adjust the pattern of income distribution.

The Influence of the Urban-Rural Income Disparity on the Industrial Structure—Taking the Yangtze River Delta Region as an Example

In this paper, the effect of the mediation effect is mainly used to test and analyze the regression model, and most scholars have studied the impact of the modernization of the industrial structure on the income gap. However, this paper is from another perspective, based on the social background of high-quality development, the main study is the impact mechanism of urban and rural income gap on the industrial structure, taking the Yangtze River Delta as the main research object, and specifically selecting 22 central cities in the Yangtze River Delta region, which is also one of the highlights of this study. The regression model is constructed by using the intermediary effect, and the four intermediary variables of fiscal expenditure (M1), fixed asset investment (M2), number of patent applications (M3), and total import and export (M4) are selected, which represent the role of the government, fixed asset investment, scientific and technological level and opening-up level, and study and analyze the inherent influence mechanism between each variable. Before doing specific research, I consulted the papers and literature of many other outstanding scholars, among which Cheng Yuhong and Cheng Chi’s “The Influence Mechanism of industrial structure of urban and rural income gap” [1] has great reference value for this paper. According to the research results, under the background of high-quality development in the Yangtze River Delta region, the expansion of the income gap between urban and rural areas will inhibit the upgrading of the industrial structure, so it is necessary to focus on building a new type of urbanization, accelerating the construction of an urban innovation system, optimizing the rural employment structure to narrow the income gap between urban and rural areas, and providing impetus for the continuous upgrading of the industrial structure.

The relationship between rural surplus labor transfer,urbanization and income gap

Based on the time series data of Shandong province from 2001 to 2018,a VAR model consisting of three variables,namely,rural surplus labor transfer,urbanization and urban-rural income gap,was constructed,and the interaction among the three variables and their characteristics were empirically analyzed.The results show that urbanization and rural surplus labor transfer are Granger causation to each other,and there is a positive correlation between urban-rural income gap and rural surplus labor force in long-term equilibrium,while there is a negative correlation between urban-rural income gap and rural surplus labor force transfer.Therefore,it is necessary to fully recognize the relationship between the transfer of rural surplus labor,urbanization and urban-rural income gap,accelerate the urbanization construction,promote the rural surplus labor to gather in cities,and gradually narrow the urban-rural income gap.

The Impact of the Upgrading of Industrial Structure in the Yangtze River Delta on the Urban-Rural Income Gap

Firstly,this paper conducts theoretical analysis and current situation analysis,and then proposes research hypotheses.Secondly,using spatial Dubin model and partial differential method,it empirically studies the impact of industrial structure advancement and rationalization on the urban-rural income gap.The results show that:(1)Both industrial structure and urban-rural income gap have significant spatial dependence;(2)The increase in the industrial structure rationalization will narrow the urban-rural income gap in local region,while its spillover effect on neighboring areas is not obvious.(3)The impact of the industrial structure advancement on the urban-rural income gap is not linear.It is first expanded and then narrowed.The industrial structure advancement in the Yangtze River Delta will generally narrow the urban-rural income gap at this stage.Finally,this paper put forward relevant suggestions.

Transcending Hukou Barriers Effectively Unleashes the Income-Raising Effect of Education:Based on an “Agricultural to Non-agricultural Hukou Conversion” Perspective

The relatively low rate of return to education has played an important role in explaining the urban-rural income disparity.However,rural residents have a high demand for education,and one significant reason is that education can help them break the restrictions of the household registration(hukou)system and obtain a higher income.Using data from the 2017 China Household Finance Survey(CHFS 2017),this study employs unconditional quantile regression to find that after reclassifying individuals who have experienced agricultural to non-agricultural hukou conversion back to the rural household registration category,the income-promotion effect on the rural population of completing high school and university education is significantly enhanced.The decomposition analysis using the recentered influence function(RIF)reveals that when considering the agricultural to non-agricultural hukou conversion group,the income disparity between urban and rural areas caused by education is noticeably alleviated.Furthermore,the endogenous switching regression model finds that individuals with agricultural hukou are generally less likely to work in formal institutions.Improving educational attainment helps increase the probability of their obtaining non-agricultural hukou and entering formal employment,resulting in higher income.Hence,policymakers should focus on improving the quality of rural education and reforming the household registration system to gradually eliminate the occupational segregation and income disparity caused by hukou barriers.

Trade and Rural-Urban Income Inequality： Evidence from China

Using the provincial panel data from 1978 to 2007, this paper makes an empirical analysis of the relationship between international trade and rural-urban income inequality in China. The results show that international trade has a fundamental impact on rural-urban income inequality. For the whole country, the development of international trade from 1978 to 2007 enlarged the rural-urban income gap. During the three different periods （defined in section 3.3）, the impact was also noticeable in terms of extent, direction and significance respectively at the national and regional levels. During the three periods, the relationship has an inverted ＂U＂ shape for China as a whole, central China and western China, but for eastern China the relationship has a ＂U＂ shape. At the same time, exports and imports have different influences on the rural-urban income gap in China, the influences were also different across regions; and the imports has had a more significant influence on these regions than exports has had.

Correlation between Employment and Income Distribution in China

The employment and income distribution problems after reform and opening up have become more and more lasting. To get these problems clear is of great practical significance in acquiring a deeper understanding of the nature, characteristics, and root causes of the current income distribution and employment problems; and finding a solution is to contribute to the building of a harmonious society. The co-existence of a half-market and half-traditional system is the basic feature of employment and income distribution in China. This paper analyzes the general and structural correlations between income distribution and employment in China. In the analysis of structural correlation, the paper explains the multi-institutional segmentation in the transitional period. In the multi-level areas segmented institutionally, the wage income gap or labor income gap has become the main factor contributing to the general income gap. To narrow the income gap, it is therefore necessary to attach much importance to the reform of employment-related institutions, the establishment, and the improvement of the market economic order.

The Effects of Financial Structure on Urban-Rural Income Gap Viewed through Economic Growth and Urbanization

From the perspective of economic growth and urbanization,this paper proposes several hypotheses on how financial structure affects urban-rural income gap combining with the stylized facts of Chinese economy,and then uses a panel data of 29 provinces over 1996-2015 to conduct empirical analysis.Theoretical analysis shows that owing to the distinct availability of urban and rural residents for financial services,financial structure has a distinct impact on their income disparity.Meanwhile,through the function of credit allocation,financial structure plays important roles in the processes of economic growth and urbanization,and then has indirect effects.The results indicate that increasing the ratio of direct financing has a direct impact on shrinking the urban-rural income gap,and has an indirect impact through economic growth and urbanization.More importantly,the intermediary effect of urbanization is stronger than that of economic growth.Therefore,releasing the controls on financial markets helps shrink the urban-rural income gap in China.

Opportunity Inequality in Income Gap of China-A Decomposition Based on Regression Equation

Using China General Social Survey(CGSS)data and a decomposition method based on regression equation,this paper decomposes the reasons for income gap in urban areas,rural areas and the whole country in general into three factors-opportunity inequality stemming from environmental factors,income inequality stemming from effort factors,and income inequality from luck and unknown factors.The results are as follows.(1)From 2010 to 2015,opportunity inequality on a national,urban and rural scale went up first and down later,with a rising contribution from Hukou(household registration)at birth.(2)Estimate shows that China’s opportunity inequality was 24.39%in 2010,28.04%in 2012,peaks at 35.72%in 2013 and falls to 30.56%in 2015,but the percentages would be 8%overestimated if Party membership,migration,and the interactions between environmental and effort factors are excluded.(3)In the 2010-2015 period,the average opportunity inequality in rural areas was 33.31%,about eight percentage points higher than in urban areas.While age and gender can explain the high rate in rural areas,difference in the place of residence is the main reason for inequality in urban areas.Therefore,this paper proposes three ways to mitigate opportunity inequality-coordinating regional development,improving fair competition in employment,and accelerating the reform of Hukou system.

The impact of transfer payments on urban-rural income gap--Based on fuzzy RD analysis of China’s midwestern counties data

In this paper,using 1054 counties data of 15 provinces in Midwestern China from 2000 to 2007,we analyze the impact of transfer payments on urban-rural income gap.By choosing Develop-the-west Strategy that is a quasi-natural experiment and using regression of discontinuity of location,the result shows that local government in western China pays more transfer payments than in the central region,however,the income gap between urban-rural residents in the western region increases by 20%.The widening effects are robust in different bandwidth situation such as distance or latitude and longitude.Meanwhile,the mechanism analyses find that urban residents benefit more than rural residents from transfer payments.Therefore,we believe that transfer payments should be more targeted to invest in rural areas,at the same time,the central government should rationalize the structure of transfer payments as soon as possible,and correct the urban bias and structure bias of local fiscal expenditure.

Filling the Income Gap

Income distribution has become one of the people’s main concerns in China where more than 30 years of reform and opening up have also resulted in an ever-expanding wealth gap. But narrowing down

Promoting the Reform of the Income Distribution System to Facilitate the Realization of Common Prosperity

Common prosperity is the essential requirement of the socialist system, and one of the important goals of China’s modernization. Common prosperity is a long-term goal, and its realization is a long-term development course. This paper expounds on the connotations and fundamental requirements of common prosperity, discusses the challenges anticipated in realizing common prosperity in China from the perspectives of income gap, property distribution gap and public services, and expatiates common prosperity as a long-term and complex course involving many difficulties. Next, this paper proposes a detailed plan for the realization of common prosperity by reforming the income distribution system and promoting the equalization of basic public services, with the view of improving the capacity of all the people to develop in a comprehensive manner.

Rational Solution To Income Gap

While enjoying an economic boom, China has seen a widening income gap that has appeared like a chasm between its urban and rural citizens. What are the deep roots of this situation and what is the best way to deal with it? Ding Yuanzhu, researcher at the Macro-Economic Research Institute of the National Development and Reform Commission, shares his views on this issue in an article published in Wen Hui Bao. Excerpts follow:

The Income Gap GROWS Large

The income gap between regions, urban and rural areas, industries and various social groups is widening in China. The gap, as indicated by the Gini Coefficient, extended beyond an alarming level. A World Bank report said the Gini Coefficient for China surged to 0.47 in 2009, exceeding the "red line" of 0.4. The problems caused by the rising income disparity have been the focus of public attention. Some experts believe that it is high time for China to shrink this income gap. A Xinhua News Agency research team recently analyzed this trend, and published an article in the Economic Information Daily. Edited excerpts follow: