A Hybrid Optimization Approach of Single Point Incremental Sheet Forming of AISI 316L Stainless Steel Using Grey Relation Analysis Coupled with Principal Component Analysiss

We investigated the parametric optimization on incremental sheet forming of stainless steel using Grey Relational Analysis(GRA) coupled with Principal Component Analysis(PCA). AISI 316L stainless steel sheets were used to develop double wall angle pyramid with aid of tungsten carbide tool. GRA coupled with PCA was used to plan the experiment conditions. Control factors such as Tool Diameter(TD), Step Depth(SD), Bottom Wall Angle(BWA), Feed Rate(FR) and Spindle Speed(SS) on Top Wall Angle(TWA) and Top Wall Angle Surface Roughness(TWASR) have been studied. Wall angle increases with increasing tool diameter due to large contact area between tool and workpiece. As the step depth, feed rate and spindle speed increase,TWASR decreases with increasing tool diameter. As the step depth increasing, the hydrostatic stress is raised causing severe cracks in the deformed surface. Hence it was concluded that the proposed hybrid method was suitable for optimizing the factors and response.

DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF SHEET METAL SINGLE-POINT INCREMENTAL FORMING BY FINITE ELEMENT METHOD SIMULATION

Single-point incremental forming （SPIF） is an innovational sheet metal forming method without dedicated dies, which belongs to rapid prototyping technology. In generalizing the SPIF of sheet metal, the deformation analysis on forming process becomes an important and useful method for the planning of shell products, the choice of material, the design of the forming process and the planning of the forming tool. Using solid brick elements, the finite element method（FEM） model of truncated pyramid was established. Based on the theory of anisotropy and assumed strain formulation, the SPIF processes with different parameters were simulated. The resulted comparison between the simulations and the experiments shows that the FEM model is feasible and effective. Then, according to the simulated forming process, the deformation pattern of SPIF can be summarized as the combination of plane-stretching deformation and bending deformation. And the study about the process parameters＇ impact on deformation shows that the process parameter of interlayer spacing is a dominant factor on the deformation. Decreasing interlayer spacing, the strain of one step decreases and the formability of blank will be improved. With bigger interlayer spacing, the plastic deformation zone increases and the forming force will be bigger.

NC INCREMENTAL SHEET METAL FORMING PROCESS AND VERTICAL WALL SQUARE BOX FORMING

The forming principle and deformation analysis of NC incremental sheet metalforming process as well as the process planning, experiment and key process parameters of verticalwall square box forming are presented. Because the deformation of sheet metal only occurs around thetool head and the deformed region is subjected to stretch deformation, the deformed region of sheetmetal thins, and surface area increases. Sheet metal forming stepwise is to lead to the whole sheetmetal deformation. The forming half-apex angle 9 and corner radius R are the main processparameters in NC incremental forming of vertical wall square box. According to sine law, a verticalwall square box can't be formed by NC incremental sheet metal forming process in a single process,rather, it must be formed in multi processes. Thus, the parallel line type tool path process methodis presented to form the vertical wall square box, and the experiment and analysis are made toverify it.

Formability of Materials with Small Tools in Incremental Forming

Single point incremental forming(SPIF)is an innovative sheet forming process with a high economic pay-off.The formability in this process can be maximized by executing forming with a tool of specific small radius,regarded as threshold critical radius.Its value has been reported as 2.2 mm for 1 mm thick sheet materials.However,with a change in the forming conditions specifically in the sheet thickness and step size,the critical radius is likely to alter due to a change in the bending condition.The main aim of the present study is to undertake this point into account and develop a relatively generic condition.The study is composed of experimental and numerical investigations.The maximum wall angle(θmax)without sheet fracturing is regarded as sheet formability.A number of sheet materials are formed to fracture and the trends correlating formability with normalized radius(i.e.,R/To where R is the tool-radius and To is the sheet thickness)are drawn.These trends confirm that there is a critical tool-radius(Rc)that maximizes the formability in SPIF.Furthermore,it is found that the critical radius is not fixed rather it shows dependence on the sheet thickness such that Rc=βTo,whereβvaries from 2.2 to 3.3 as the thickness increases from 1 mm to 3 mm.The critical radius,however,remains insensitive to variation in step size ranging from 0.3 mm to 0.7 mm.This is also observed that the selection of tool with R<Rc narrows down the formability window not only on the higher side but also on the lower side.The higher limit,as revealed by the experimental and FEA results,diminishes due to excessive shearing because of in-plane biaxial compression,and the lower limit reduces due to pillowing in the bottom of part.The new tool-radius condition proposed herein study would be helpful in maximizing the formability of materials in SPIF without performing experimental trials.

Incremental forming of free surface with magnesium alloy AZ31 sheet at warm temperatures

The formabilityof AZ31 sheet begins to increase drastically at 150℃.The incremental forming technique was thus applied to AZ31 sheet at 150℃to utilize the formability to its fullest capacity at the lowest possible temperature for forming applications.A surface scanning technique was used followed by the tool path generation to incrementally form an egg surface.After thorough examination of various tool paths,the surface was most successfully produced by forming an intermediate shape followed by a series of tool paths.Flexible scale stickers were devised to improve the accuracy in the measurement of grid deformation.

Numerical simulation and experimental investigation of incremental sheet forming process

In order to investigate the process of incremental sheet forming (ISF) through both experimental and numerical approaches, a three-dimensional elasto-plastic finite element model (FEM) was developed to simulate the process and the simulated results were compared with those of experiment. The results of numerical simulations, such as the strain history and distribution, the stress state and distribution, sheet thickness distribution, etc, were discussed in details, and the influences of process parameters on these results were also analyzed. The simulated results of the radial strain and the thickness distribution are in good agreement with experimental results. The simulations reveal that the deformation is localized around the tool and constantly remains close to a plane strain state. With decreasing depth step, increasing tool diameter and wall inclination angle, the axial stress reduces, leading to less thinning and more homogeneous plastic strain and thickness distribution. During ISF, the plastic strain increases stepwise under the action of the tool. Each increase in plastic strain is accompanied by hydrostatic pressure, which explains why obtainable deformation using ISF exceeds the forming limits of conventional sheet forming.

Plasma Surface Cu Alloyed Layer as a Lubricant on Stainless Steel Sheet:Wear Characteristics and On-job Performance in Incremental Forming

To solve the problems of poor forming and easy adhesion of the stainless steel,Cu alloyed layer on the stainless steels was prepared by the double glow plasma surface alloying technique.The experimentalresults indicated that the supersaturated copper dispersedly precipitated in grain interior and crystalboundaries and formed the vermicular structure.The tribologicaltests indicated that the friction coefficient of the Cu alloyed layer was lower than that of the stainless steels.The wear rate of stainless steelin the presence of Cu alloyed layer was approximately 2-fold lower than that in the absence of the alloyed layer.The results of the incrementalforming indicated that the ploughing phenomenon was not observed on the stainless steelin the presence of Cu alloyed layer during the incrementalforming,while the stainless steelpresented the deep ploughing.Therefore,Cu alloyed layer on stainless steelexhibited excellent self-lubrication and forming properties.

Analysis and optimization of variable depth increments in sheet metal incremental forming

A method utilizing variable depth increments during incremental forming was proposed and then optimized based on numerical simulation and intelligent algorithm.Initially,a finite element method(FEM) model was set up and then experimentally verified.And the relation between depth increment and the minimum thickness tmin as well as its location was analyzed through the FEM model.Afterwards,the variation of depth increments was defined.The designed part was divided into three areas according to the main deformation mechanism,with Di(i=1,2) representing the two dividing locations.And three different values of depth increment,Δzi(i=1,2,3) were utilized for the three areas,respectively.Additionally,an orthogonal test was established to research the relation between the five process parameters(D and Δz) and tmin as well as its location.The result shows that Δz2 has the most significant influence on the thickness distribution for the corresponding area is the largest one.Finally,a single evaluating indicator,taking into account of both tmin and its location,was formatted with a linear weighted model.And the process parameters were optimized through a genetic algorithm integrated with an artificial neural network based on the evaluating index.The result shows that the proposed algorithm is satisfactory for the optimization of variable depth increment.

Thickness distribution of multi-stage incremental forming with different forming stages and angle intervals

Although multi-stage incremental sheet forming has always been adopted instead of single-stage forming to form parts with a steep wall angle or to achieve a high forming performance, it is largely dependent on empirical designs. In order to research multi-stage forming further, the effect of forming stages(n) and angle interval between the two adjacent stages(Δα) on thickness distribution was investigated. Firstly, a finite element method(FEM) model of multi-stage incremental forming was established and experimentally verified. Then, based on the proposed simulation model, different strategies were adopted to form a frustum of cone with wall angle of 30° to research the thickness distribution of multi-pass forming. It is proved that the minimum thickness increases largely and the variance of sheet thickness decreases significantly as the value of n grows. Further, with the increase of Δα, the minimum thickness increases initially and then decreases, and the optimal thickness distribution is achieved with Δα of 10°.Additionally, a formula is deduced to estimate the sheet thickness after multi-stage forming and proved to be effective. And the simulation results fit well with the experimental results.

Method of closed loop springback compensation for incremental sheet forming process

The closed loop control model was built up for compensating the springback and enhancing the work piece precision.A coupled closed loop algorithm and a finite element method were developed to simulate and correct the springback of incremental sheet forming.A three-dimensional finite element model was established for simulation of springback in incremental sheet forming process.The closed loop algorithm of trajectory profile for the incremental sheet forming based on the wavelet transform combined with fast Fourier transform was constructed.The profile of processing tool path of shallow dishing with spherical surface was designed on the basis of the profile correction algorithm.The result shows that the algorithm can predict an ideal profile of processing track,and the springback error of incremental sheet forming is eliminated effectively.It has good convergence efficiency,and can improve the workpiece dimensional accuracy greatly.

Microstructure and M echanical Properties of Magnesium Alloy Sheet by Friction Heating Single Point Incremental Forming

By friction heating single point incremental forming,truncated square pyramid parts with different draw angles of a magnesium alloy AZ31 B were formed at room temperature.Metallurgical,tensile and micro-hardness tests were carried out to obtain the effects of wall angle on microstructure and mechanical properties. The results show that grain in side wall of the formed parts becomes refined significantly. Furthermore,with the increase of draw angle,grain size increases,but strength,hardness and plasticity decrease. In addition, surface roughness tests were performed on the formed surface to determine the influence of speed of forming tool. The results show that surface roughness has a little increase with the increase of tool rotational speed.

Studying Formability Limits By Combining Conventional and Incremental Sheet Forming Process

In this work it is assessed the potential of combining conventional and incremental sheet forming processes in a same sheet of metal.This so-called hybrid forming approach is performed through the manufacture of a pre-forming by conventional forming,followed by incremental sheet forming.The main objective is analyzing strain evolution.The pre-forming induced in the conventional forming stage will determine the strain paths,directly influencing the strains produced by the incremental process.To conduct the study,in the conventional processes,strains were imposed in three different ways with distinct true strains.At the incremental stage,the pyramid strategy was adopted with different wall slopes.From the experiments,the true strains and the final geometries were analyzed.Numerical simulation was also employed for the sake of comparison and correlation with the measured data.It could be observed that single-stretch pre-strain was directly proportional to the maximum incremental strains achieved,whereas samples subjected to biaxial pre-strain influenced the formability according to the degree of pre-strain applied.Pre-strain driven by the prior deep-drawing operation did not result,in this particular geometry,in increased formability.

Improving Local Temperature Rise in Rotational Incremental Sheet Forming Process by Modifying Forming Parameters Using Response Surface Method

In rotational incremental sheet forming( RISF) process,the friction heating of rotational tool could lead to local temperature rise of the sheet and cause the improvement of sheet's formability.Lightweight metal,such as magnesium alloy,could be deformed by RISF without additional heating. The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of forming parameters,namely,tool rotational speed,feed-rate,step size and wall angle,on the local temperature rise. Using response surface methodology and central composite design( CCD) experimental design,the significance,sequence of parameters and regression models would be analyzed with AZ31 B as the experimental material,and 3D response surface plots would be shown. Combined with actual processing conditions,the measures to improve the local temperature rise by modifying each parameter would be discussed in the end. The results showed that hierarchy of the parameters with respect to the significance of their effects on the local temperature at the side wall was: feed-rate,step size,and rotational speed,while at the bottom it was: feed-rate,step size,wall angle, and rotational speed, and no significant interaction appeared. It was found that the most significant parameter was not rotational speed,but feed-rate,followed by step size,for both test positions. In addition, the local temperature would increase by elevating step size,wall angle,rotating rate,and bringing down of feed-rate.

Experimental Study on Springback of Sheet Metal Single Point Incremental Forming

Sheet metal single point incremental forming （SPIF） is a new technology for flexible process. The springback phenomenon in single point incremental forming has been discussed. Effects of forming angle and shape of the part are analysed using simple experimental method. Tool diameter, sheet thickness, step size, material parameters and the interaction of them are also analysed by using orthogonal test. The results show that the primary factor af- fecting springback is forming angle. In addition, springback is decreased when the specimen has a larger forming angle. The order of the four factors that influence springback is tool diameter, sheet thickness, step size and material parameters. The forming precision will increase if springabck is decreased by optimizing the forming parameters.

A NON－INCREMENTAL TIME－SPACE ALGORITHM FOR NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FORMING PROCESS

A non-incremental time-space algorithm is proposed for numerical. analysis of forming process with the inclusion of geometrical, material, contact-frictional nonlinearities. Unlike the widely used Newton-Raphson counterpart, the present scheme features an iterative solution procedure on entire time and space domain. Validity and feasibility of foe present scheme are further justiced by the numerical investigation herewith presented.

A novel micro-rolling&incremental sheet forming hybrid process:Deformation behavior and microstructure evolution

Thin-walled metal parts with functional micro-featured surface have broad application prospects in the fields of resistance reduction,noise reduction,etc.In this study,a novel micro-rolling&incremental sheet forming hybrid process(μR-ISF)is proposed to fabricate thin-walled metal parts with microgroove arrays.An analytical model which relates the rolling force and microgroove depth in the micro-rolling stage was first established.Then,the formation mechanism of microgroove morphology during both micro-rolling stage and macro-shape forming stage are investigated.After the micro-grooved sheet being incrementally formed,a significant reduction(between 21%to nearly 60%)is occurred in the depth of both transverse and longitudinal grooves compared to the flat sheet.Meanwhile,the width of transverse grooves decreases slightly by about 10%on average,while the width of longitudinal microgrooves increases significantly by more than 30%on average.After micro-rolling,85°{102}tensile twins appear on the micro-grooved sheet and the percentage of 65°{112}compressive twins increases.After incremental forming,the percentage of low-angle grain boundaries and the density of geometrically necessary dislocations in the formed part increase significantly,and the grain size distribution becomes more uniform.The present work provides a new strategy for the fabrication of 3D metal thin-walled components with surface micro-features.

Application of Ceramic Film as Means of Lubrication for Forming of TiSheet in a Highly Localized Deformation Process

Incremental forming is a novel die-less sheet forming process. There is a need for special means to retain lubricant at the tool/sheet interface during forming. To fulfillthe stated aim, a porous ceramic film was developed on pure Ti substrate, and it was done through an electrochemical depsition process known as plasma electrolytic oxidation. The film with preferred pore size could be realized after several attempts by varying the processing parameters. In order to characterize the film, a variety of tests including rnicrostructure, film-substrate bond strength and tribological properties tests were conducted. On-job performance of the film was also examined by forming Ti components employing a range of forming conditions. It was found that the proposed method of lubrication was effective, and the plasma eletrolytic oxidation process can be employed to fabricate films on pure Ti sheet to provide means of lubrication during incremental forming.

A GENERAL FORM OF THE INCREMENTS OF TWO-PARAMETER FRACTIONAL WIENER PROCESS

A general form of the increments of two-parameter fractional Wiener process is given. The results of Csoergo-Révész increments are a special case,and it also implies the results of the increments of the two-parameter Wiener process.

Millipede forming-a new metal forming approach

Millipede Forming is a novel metal forming method that has been proposed and developed recently.It can be applied to overcome fundamental limitations in conventional roll forming,and,in addition,used for incremental forging and integrated into a strip casting or extrusion process for downstream thickness reduction. In this new method,there are two main principles:①the use of an optimal transitional surface or space linking of the incoming material to the outgoing product,and②implementation of a method to feed the material through the forming device so that it conforms with this ideal space and the required deformation is imposed on it by the tooling. The system described here is called "Millipede forming" because deformation is accomplished in a large number of small steps.A prototype has been built to demonstrate the working principle applied to the replacement of a roll forming process;it can be used to produce simple profiles within a forming length an order of magnitude shorter than the conventional process. In this paper,the working principle of "Millipede forming" is introduced and some fundamental research on forming a channel section and a circular tube is discussed.Following the success of the small scale prototype, research on a full scale pilot machine has been proceeding.It is expected that this process can be developed and extended as a useful alternative to conventional roll forming,incremental forging and within a strip casting or other novel strip material(e.g.nanostructured metals) system.

A toolpath strategy for improving geometric accuracy in double-sided incremental sheet forming

The double-sided incremental forming(DSIF)improved the process flexibility compared to other incremental sheet forming(ISF)processes.Despite the flexible nature,it faces the challenge of low geometric precision like ISF variants.In this work,two strategies are used to overcome this.First,a novel method is employed to determine the optimal support tool location for improving geometric precision.In this method,the toolpath oriented the tools to each other systematically in the circumferential direction.Besides,it squeezed the sheet by the same amount at the point of interest.The impacts of various support tool positions in the circumferential direction are evaluated for geometric precision.The results demonstrate that the support tool should support the master tool within 10°to its local normal in the circumferential direction to improve the geometric accuracy.Second,a two-stage process reduced the geometric error of the part by incrementally accommodating the springback error by artificially increasing the step size for the second stage.With the optimal support tool position and two-stage DSIF,the geometric precision of the part has improved significantly.The proposed method is compared to the best DSIF toolpath strategies for geometric accuracy,surface roughness,forming time,and sheet thickness fluctuations using grey relational analysis(GRA).It outperforms the other toolpath strategies including single-stage DSIF,accumulative double-sided incremental forming(ADSIF),and two-stage mixed double sided incre-mental forming(MDSIF).Our approach can improve geometric precision in complex parts by successfully employing the support tool and managing the springback incrementally.