TGF-β2 downregulates osteogenesis under inflammatory conditions in dental follicle stem cells

Bone formation is important for the reconstruction of bone-related structures in areas that have been damaged by inflammation.Inflammatory conditions such as those that occur in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, cystic fibrosis, and periodontitis have been shown to inhibit osteoblastic differentiation. This study focussed on dental follicle stem cells(DFSCs), which are found in developing tooth germ and participate in the reconstruction of alveolar bone and periodontal tissue in periodontal disease. After bacterial infection of inflamed dental tissue, the destruction of bone was observed. Currently, little is known about the relationship between the inflammatory environment and bone formation. Osteogenic differentiation of inflamed DFSCs resulted in decreased alkaline phosphatase(ALP) activity and alizarin red S staining compared to normal DFSCs. Additionally, in vivo transplantation of inflamed and normal DFSCs demonstrated severe impairment of osteogenesis by inflamed DFSCs. Protein profile analysis via liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was performed to analyse the differences in protein expression in inflamed and normal tissue. Comparison of inflamed and normal DFSCs showed significant changes in the level of expression of transforming growth factor(TGF)-β2. Porphyromonas gingivalis(P.g.)-derived lipopolysaccharide(LPS) was used to create in vitro inflammatory conditions similar to periodontitis. The osteogenic differentiation of LPS-treated DFSCs was suppressed, and the cells displayed low levels of TGF-β1 and high levels of TGF-β2. DFSCs treated with TGF-β2 inhibitors showed significant increases in alizarin red S staining and ALP activity. TGF-β1 expression was also increased after inhibition of TGF-β2. By examining inflamed DFSCs and LPS-triggered DFSCs, these studies showed both clinically and experimentally that the increase in TGF-β2 levels that occurs under inflammatory conditions inhibits bone formation.

Inflammation-associated ectopic mineralization

Ectopic mineralization refers to the deposition of mineralized complexes in the extracellular matrix of soft tissues.Calcific aortic valve disease,vascular calcification,gallstones,kidney stones,and abnormal mineralization in arthritis are common examples of ectopic mineralization.They are debilitating diseases and exhibit excess mortality,disability,and morbidity,which impose on patients with limited social or financial resources.Recent recognition that inflammation plays an important role in ectopic mineralization has attracted the attention of scientists from different research fields.In the present review,we summarize the origin of inflammation in ectopic mineralization and different channels whereby inflammation drives the initiation and progression of ectopic mineralization.The current knowledge of inflammatory milieu in pathological mineralization is reviewed,including how immune cells,pro-inflammatory mediators,and osteogenic signaling pathways induce the osteogenic transition of connective tissue cells,providing nucleating sites and assembly of aberrant minerals.Advances in the understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved in inflammatory-mediated ectopic mineralization enable novel strategies to be developed that may lead to the resolution of these enervating conditions.