Influence of Transportation Accessibility on Urban-rural Income Disparity and Its Spatial Heterogeneity

Transportation accessibility has been treated as an important means of reducing the urban-rural income disparity.However,only a few studies have examined the effects of different types of transportation accessibility on urban-rural income disparity and their spatial heterogeneity.Based on data from 285 prefecture-level(and above)Chinese cities in 2000,2005,2010,2015,and 2020,this study uses spatial econometric models to examine how highway accessibility and railway accessibility influence the urban-rural income disparity and to identify their spatial heterogeneity.The result reveals that highway accessibility and railway accessibility have‘coreperiphery’ring-like circle structures.The urban-rural income disparity exhibits strong spatial clustering effects.Both highway accessibility and railway accessibility are negatively associated with urban-rural income disparity,and the former having a greater effect size.Moreover,there is a substitution effect between highway accessibility and railway accessibility in the whole sample.Furthermore,these associations differ in geographic regions.In the central region,highway accessibility is more important in reducing the urban-rural income disparity,but its effect is weakened with the increase of railway accessibility.In the western region,railway accessibility has a larger effect on narrowing the urban-rural income disparity,and this effect is strengthened by the increase of highway accessibility.We conclude that improving transportation accessibility is conducive to reducing the urban-rural income disparity but its effect is spatial heterogenetic.Highways and railways should be developed in a coordinated manner to promote an integrated transport network system.

Income Growth,Income Gaps,and Rural Poverty Reduction in China

This paper analyzes the evolving trends in China’s rural poverty from 1988 to 2018 and how income growth and income gaps contributed to poverty reduction using rural household data from the China Household Income Project(CHIP).We find that after China’s reform and opening up policy introduced in 1978,China’s rural poverty has been reduced substantially due primarily to income growth,although this poverty-reducing effect was partially offset by widening income gaps.During the progress of this poverty reduction,however,income distribution replaced income growth as the key driver.For the extremely poor in particular,their poverty status hinged upon income distribution.As revealed by our empirical analysis of income sources,wage income became the chief source of income for rural households,contributing a rising share to poverty reduction in the countryside.The contribution of net income from government transfer to poverty reduction has increased in recent years,and this contribution has been increased with the deepening level of poverty.Calculation of the pro-poor growth index suggests that the poor population primarily benefited from the trickle-down effect of economic growth,and the economic growth pattern has yet to lean towards pro-poor growth.

A Research on the Threshold Effect of Credit Rationingupon the Urban-rural Income Gap in Rural Areas

在剖析了信贷配给与城乡收入差距之间作用机制的基础上,论文构建了信贷配给与城乡收入差距的面板门槛模型,选取3 1 个省市1987年- 201 3年的省级面板数据,运用面板门槛模型估计方法,实证分析信贷配给对城乡收入差距的影响,并且从区域层面进行了比较分析.结果显示：降低信贷配给程度有助于缓解城乡收入差距,而从东部、中部、西部三大区域的实证结果来看,各地区的信贷配给程度的提升对城乡收入差距的扩大有不同程度的影响.最后根据研究结果,提出降低各地区农业信贷配给程度的措施,从而达到缩小城乡收入差距的目的.

The Approaches to Narrowing Urban-Rural Income Gap——From the Perspective of Rural Social Security

From the situations about the incomes and life quality of the urban and rural residents,the thesis briefly introduces the status quo of the urban-rural income gap and explores the impact of the income gap on social economy:firstly,it hampers economic development;secondly,it is detrimental to the social development.Then the thesis analyzes the role of a sound social security in narrowing urban-rural income gap:at first,it broadens the institutional environment of improving the agricultural efficiency;secondly,it eliminates the uncertainties influencing the farmers' income;thirdly,it improves the farmers' capacity to increase income;at last,it enhances the farmers' consciousness of wealth.Next the thesis inquires into the problems existing in the system of rural social security:the first problem is more obviously fragmented system;the second is inadequate security projects and narrower coverage;the third is an obvious lack of equality in urban and rural security;the fourth is even less sound management system;the last is the lagging of legislation.Afterwards the thesis proposes the countermeasures and suggestions to improve the system of rural social security and narrow urban-rural income gap:firstly,to integrate the social security system in rural areas;secondly,to perfect security projects and enhance the security system;thirdly,to integrate the administrative management of social security;at last,to enforce the legal system.

A Study on the Factors Influencing the Income Gap between Urban and Rural Areas Based on State-space Model

The increasingly widening income gap between urban and rural areas is affected by many factors. Using the stepwise regression analysis,we find that urbanization level,socio-economic development,education level,financial development scale and financial development efficiency have the greatest impact on the income gap between urban and rural areas. By cointegration test,it is found that there is a long-term equilibrium relationship between these five variables and the income gap between urban and rural areas. We build the state-space model to research the dynamic impact of these factors on the income gap between urban and rural areas. The results show that by improving the level of urbanization,we can effectively narrow the income gap between urban and rural areas,while socio-economic development,the improvement of education level,expansion of financial development scale and financial development efficiency all significantly expand the income gap between urban and rural areas.

Fiscal Expenditure and Income Gap between Urban and Rural Residents: An Empirical Study Based on Malmquist Index and Spatial Econometrics

Based on the analysis methods of non-parametric Malmquist index and spatial econometrics as well as the provincial panel data in 2007-2010, this paper estimates the efficiency of fiscal expenditure from local governments in china in terms of reducing the income gap between urban and rural residents for the first time and evaluates the spatial correlation and heterogeneity of this efficiency. The results have shown that the fiscal expenditure of most provinces is of low efficiency in reducing the income gap between urban and rural residents, and the expenditure efficiency of local governments is not relevant to their levels of economic development. Besides, the efficiency on reducing the urban-rural income gap between different regions of China has a tendency of convergence. But this is mainly reflected inside the regional economic belt. There is significant difference between the efficiency of each economic belt. The central region has the highest efficiency in a rising trend, the western region has the lowest efficiency in a downward trend, while the eastern region is relatively stable.

Granger Causality Test of Urban-rural Income Gap and Employment of Rural Labor Forces——A Case Study of Shouguang City

Taking Shouguang City in Shandong Province as an example, this article researches the mutual relationship between urban-rural income and employment of rural labor forces, and conducting cointegration test and Granger causality test on the variable sequences using statistical data. The results show that the average annual income of rural labor forces influences the income per capita of rural residents, and there is a Granger causality relationship between the income per capita of rural residents and urban employees' average wage. Engaging in production concerning agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery makes the total income per capita in rural areas of Shouguang City higher than the average wage of urban residents in Shouguang City, even in Weifang City. The comparative advantage in terms of income causes the city to loose attraction to rural residents in Shouguang City. The comparative advantage drives more rural labor forces in Shouguang City to engage in primary industry, thereby greatly reducing the pressure of employment and transfer of rural labor forces. Finally important following measures are put forward to promote employment and on-the-spot transfer of rural labor forces: vigorously propel agricultural industrialization; increase rural residents' income; improve the living conditions for rural residents.

Comparative Research on Prediction Model of China's Urban-rural Residents' Income Gap

By using the data concerning China's urban-rural residents' income gap from 1978 to 2010,this paper mainly researches the application of several kinds of models in predicting China's urban-rural residents' income gap.By conducting empirical analysis,we establish ARIMA prediction model,grey prediction model and quadratic-polynomial prediction model and conduct accuracy comparison.The results show that quadratic-polynomial prediction model has excellent fitting effect.By using quadratic-polynomial prediction model,this paper conducts prediction on trend of China's urban-rural residents' income gap from 2011 to 2013,and the prediction value of income gap of urban-rural residents in China from 2011 to 2013 is 14 173.20,15 212.92 and 16 289.67 yuan respectively.Finally,on the basis of analysis,corresponding countermeasures are put forward,in order to provide scientific basis for energy planning and policy formulation:first,strengthen government's function of public service,coordinate resources,and strive to provide an equal opportunity of development for social members,so as to promote people's welfare and promote social equality;second,breach industrial monopoly and bridge income gap between employees in monopoly industry and general industry;last but not the least,support,encourage and call for government to establish social relief fund,adjust residents' income distribution from the non-governmental perspective,and endeavor to promote the income level of low-income class.

Influence of social capital on farmer household income gap:total effect and structural effect

Based on the survey data of typical villages in Shaanxi Province,China,the effect of social capital on the income gap of farmers' households was analyzed using the Shapley value of the total amount of social capital and the social capital structure.The results show the following:first,social capital can expand the household income gap,and the effect of this index on the household income gap is 7.54%.Second,the indexes of the social capital dimension can expand the household income gap,and the structural effects of the household income gap on social networks,social trust,and social participation are 3.17%,3.64%,and 0.65%,respectively.Third,no dimension of the path is the same as the effect on the household income gap.

The Impact of the Income Gap in Rural China on Residents' Consumption Based on Theil Index

This paper measures the Chinese regional income distribution gap based on the Theil index with data of 31 provinces in China from 1998 to 2011. The results showed that overall the income gap between China's rural areas was on the rise from 1998 to 2006,and the income gap was mainly caused by the gap between the East China,Central China and West China. After 2006,it showed a slow decline. The dynamic panel data model established for consumer demand,spending habits,income,regional income disparities showed that income and regional income disparities significantly influence consumer demand of rural residents. Before 2006 regional income gap inhibited the consumption of rural residents,but it promoted consumption after 2006.

The Income Gap among Rural Residents in Shaanxi Province,China

According to the analysis on the current status of the income gap among rural residents in Shaanxi Province,it is found out that the income of rural residents in Shaanxi Province of China is not only lower than the average income level of China,but also far lower than the income level of urban residents and the income level of rural residents in developed areas.The low income is mainly caused by the increasing income gap among income groups and the income gap among rural residents in different areas.Based on this,causations for the income gap among rural residents are analyzed from three aspects of the cultural difference,the regional economic difference,and the industrial structure difference.Countermeasures for narrowing the income gap and increasing the farmers' income in Shaanxi Province are put forward,such as vigorously developing the rural economy and speeding up the transfer of rural surplus labor forces in China.

An Empirical Analysis on the Impact of Rural Financial Development on the Income Gap between Urban and Rural Residents in Heilongjiang Province

The high-quality development of rural finance is an important support for rural revitalization.In recent years,it continuously expands the investment in rural finance in Heilongjiang Province,and optimizes the rural financial service system and mechanism.The overall income level and living conditions of rural residents have been significantly improved,but there still exists income gap between urban and rural residents.Therefore,based on analyzing and combing current situation and problems of rural financial development and urban-rural income gap in Heilongjiang Province,multiple linear regression model is used to study the impact of rural financial development on the income gap between urban and rural residents in Heilongjiang Province.The research results show that the scale of rural financial development in Heilongjiang Province will enlarge the income gap between urban and rural residents,while rural financial development efficiency and urbanization level reduce income gap between urban and rural residents in Heilongjiang Province.Based on the above conclusions,some policy suggestions to promote the equalization of urban and rural income in Heilongjiang Province are puts forward in this paper.

An Empirical Study of the Relationship between the Fixed Assets Investment and Urban-rural Income Gap during the Transition Period

As the gap in income between urban and rural residents bigger and bigger,based on the data from 1978 to 2007,this paper makes an empirical study of the dynamic relation between the fixed assets investment and the difference in income between urban and rural residents. The outcome from the study indicates a long-term balance exists between the investment rate of the fixed assets and the difference in income between urban and rural residents. A short-term deviation from the balance can be adjusted through long time. To a certain extent,city-oriented fixed assets investment policy is the main cause of the big gap in income between urban and rural residents. The big gap in income between urban and rural residents in turn reinforces their social status,thus further strengthening the city-oriented instead of countryside-oriented fixed assets investment policy. Based on that,this paper puts forward some suggestions on adjusting the fixed assets investment policy so as to shorten the difference in income between urban and rural residents and realize the goal of harmonious development between city and countryside.

Urban-rural Income Gap Needs Urgent Reduction

Since the late 1970s, with the rapid growth of China’s economy, the income levels of both urban and rural residents have risen significantly, and their standard of living has fundamentally improved. However, a disparity in income growth between the two exists, and the disparities in relative and absolute income have experienced a period of long-term expansion, which has led to the long-time widening of the consumption gap. There are several indicators of these disparities: the proportion of urban and rural consumption compared to the national level, the changes measured by the Engel’s coefficient, residents’ possession of consumer durables in the countryside, etc. The expanding disparity in consumption between urban and rural residents is neither conducive to meeting aggregate domestic demand, nor to upgrading the industrial structure. In this regard, measures must be taken to curb the expanding urban and rural income gap, so as to help rural incomes grow more quickly and further promote China’s economic growth and social stability.

Income Gap and the Risk of MiddleIncome Trap Facing China

International experience shows that economic stagnation and deterioration of income distribution are both the cause and effect of each other and also reinforce each other.Such a relationship may put some high-growth countries into the middle-income trap.Income levels in China are above average,but economic growth is decelerating.At such a time,China should attach great importance to addressing the widening income gap.This paper attempts to integrate official data on income with researchers' surveys to examine income distribution in China.It reveals the causes for unequal and unfair income distribution and illustrates the policy significance of reforming primary and secondary distributions to adjust the pattern of income distribution.

The Empirical Analysis of the Impacts of Income Distribution Gap on Consumption Demand:Based on the Statistic Data of Chinese Urban Residents in 2000-2010

This paper analyzes the impact of income distribution gap on consumption demand from a theoretical view,and draws the conclusion that there is an inverse relationship between income distribution gap and consumption demand.Then,the paper finds that the existing widening income distribution gap in China has a negative impact on consumption demand,but this is not the key factor for the insufficient consumption demand because of the low level of per capital income.At last,it suggests that governments should improve the income level of entire residents and adjust income distribution structure simultaneously.

The relationship between rural surplus labor transfer,urbanization and income gap

Based on the time series data of Shandong province from 2001 to 2018,a VAR model consisting of three variables,namely,rural surplus labor transfer,urbanization and urban-rural income gap,was constructed,and the interaction among the three variables and their characteristics were empirically analyzed.The results show that urbanization and rural surplus labor transfer are Granger causation to each other,and there is a positive correlation between urban-rural income gap and rural surplus labor force in long-term equilibrium,while there is a negative correlation between urban-rural income gap and rural surplus labor force transfer.Therefore,it is necessary to fully recognize the relationship between the transfer of rural surplus labor,urbanization and urban-rural income gap,accelerate the urbanization construction,promote the rural surplus labor to gather in cities,and gradually narrow the urban-rural income gap.

Does the Rising Agricultural Prices Narrow the Urban-rural Income Gap?

Based on the Chinese provincial panel data during the period 2003-2010,we conduct empirical test on whether China's rapidly rising prices of agricultural products narrow the urban-rural income gap.The empirical results indicate that the effects of rising agricultural prices on the urban-rural income gap show U shape:within some range of rise,the rising agricultural prices are conducive to narrowing the urban-rural income gap;when the rise is too sharp,it will widen the urban-rural income gap.In the multiple factors fueling the uptick in agricultural prices,rising labor costs in rural areas is an important factor,and the rising agricultural prices driven by this factor can significantly reduce the urban-rural income gap.Therefore,when the government regulates agricultural prices,there is a need to act according to the specific factors,and it should maintain certain"tolerance"for the modest rise in the agricultural prices that contributes to the increase in farmers'income,to avoid over-regulation at the expense of urban and rural residents'income convergence.

Intergenerational Transmission of Income Gap for Chinese Urban and Rural Households

An accurate understanding of the intergenerational transmission of income gap is the foundation for theoretical research and policy formulation to address this issue. This paper has employed the method of two sample instrumental variables to effectively integrate CHIP data and CFPS data and correct the temporal income bias, life-cycle bias and coresidence bias, which are common problems in existing studies, and investigated the tendencies of intergenerational transmission of income gap for China's urban and rural households between 2002 and 2012. Results of empirical study indicate that the intergenerational transmission of income gap for China's urban and rural households has been on the decline yet the level of intergenerational transmission is greater for urban residents than for rural residents. This level of intergenerational transmission of income gap in China is at a medium international level lower than that of countries like the United States, Brazil and Japan and higher than that of Sweden and Chinese Taiwan. Further analysis of the intergenerational mobility of various income groups suggests the following: the intergenerational solidification of the bottom and top income groups of urban residents has significantly improved, which is the source for the reduction of intergenerational transmission of income gap. Rural residents of bottom income group are vulnerable to falling into the trap of intergenerational transmission of low income. In order to mitigate the intergenerational transmission of income gap, efforts must be made to improve educational allowance policy and increase the opportunities for children from poor and underprivileged families to receive education and to eliminate the divide of labor markets to create equal job opportunities for each and every worker.