QMCR:A Q-Learning-Based Multi-Hop Cooperative Routing Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

Routing plays a critical role in data transmission for underwater acoustic sensor networks(UWSNs)in the internet of underwater things(IoUT).Traditional routing methods suffer from high end-toend delay,limited bandwidth,and high energy consumption.With the development of artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms,many researchers apply these new methods to improve the quality of routing.In this paper,we propose a Qlearning-based multi-hop cooperative routing protocol(QMCR)for UWSNs.Our protocol can automatically choose nodes with the maximum Q-value as forwarders based on distance information.Moreover,we combine cooperative communications with Q-learning algorithm to reduce network energy consumption and improve communication efficiency.Experimental results show that the running time of the QMCR is less than one-tenth of that of the artificial fish-swarm algorithm(AFSA),while the routing energy consumption is kept at the same level.Due to the extremely fast speed of the algorithm,the QMCR is a promising method of routing design for UWSNs,especially for the case that it suffers from the extreme dynamic underwater acoustic channels in the real ocean environment.

Practical network coding-aware routing protocol for multi-hop wireless networks

Network coding has been considered as one of the effective strategies that improve the throughput of multi- hop wireless networks. In order to effectively apply network coding techniques to the real multi-hop wireless networks, a practical network coding aware routing protocol is proposed in this paper, for unicast sessions in multi- hop wireless networks. The protocol is based on a novel routing metric design that captures the characteristics of network coding and unicast sessions. To ensure the novel routing mettle can operate with practical and widely available path calculation algorithms, a unique mapping process is used to map a real wireless network to a virtual network. The mapping process ensures that the paths with the biggest coding opportunities will be selected by commonly used path calculation algorithms. Simulation results show that the proposed routing protocol is effective to improve the network throughput.

Load balancing strategy of heterogeneous wireless networks based on multi-hop routing algorithm of ad hoc network

Because of different system capacities of base station （BS） or access point （AP） and ununiformity of traffic distribution in different cells, quantities of new call users may be blocked in overloaded cell in communication hot spots. Whereas in some neighboring under-loaded cells, bandwidth may be superfluous because there are only few users to request services. In order to raise resource utilization of the whole heterogeneous networks, several novel load balancing strategies are proposed, which combine the call ad- mission control policy and multi-hop routing protocol of ad-hoc network for load balancing. These loadbalancing strategies firstly make a decision whether to admit a new call or not by considering some parameters like load index and route cost, etc., and then transfer the denied users into neighboring under-loaded cell with surplus channel according to optimum multi-hop routing algorithm. Simulation results show that the proposed load balancing strategies can distribute traffics to the whole heterogeneous wireless netorks, improve the load balance index efficiently, and avoid the call block phenomenon almost absolutely.

MILITARY MULTI-HOP ROUTING PROTOCOL

Military tactical network is one of the most important applications of ad hoc network. Currently the existing routing protocols are put forward based on the simple and universal network model which has the ability of multi-hop routing but cannot work efficiently in the special military applications. The narrow bandwidth and limited energy of the wireless network make general routing protocols seem to be more redundant. In order to satisfy military needs properly, this letter makes a detailed analysis of physical nodes and traffic distribution in military network, uses cross-layer design concept tbr reference, combines traffic characteristic of application layer with routing protocol design. It categorized routing problem as crucial routes and non-crucial routes which adopted separate maintenance methods. It not only realizes basic transmission function but also works efficiently. It is quite fit for military application.

(EERSM): Energy-Efficient Multi-Hop Routing Technique in Wireless Sensor Networks Based on Combination between Stationary and Mobile Nodes

In Wireless Sensor Network (WSNs), sensor nodes collect data and send them to a Base Station (BS) for further processing. One of the most issues in WSNs that researchers have proposed a hundred of technique to solve its impact is the energy constraint since sensor nodes have small battery, small memory and less data processing with low computational capabilities. However, many researches efforts have focused on how to prolong the battery lifetime of sensor nodes by proposing different routing, MAC, localization, data aggregation, topology construction techniques. In this paper, we will focus on routing techniques which aim to prolonging the network lifetime. Hence, we propose an Energy-Efficient Routing technique in WSNs based on Stationary and Mobile nodes (EERSM). Sensing filed is divided into intersected circles which contain Mobile Nodes (MN). The proposed data aggregation technique via the circular topology will eliminate the redundant data to be sent to the Base Station (BS). MN in each circle will rout packets for their source nodes, and move to the intersected area where another MN is waiting (sleep mode) to receive the transmitted packet, and then the packet will be delivered to the next intersected area until the packet is arrived to the BS. Our proposed EERSM technique is simulated using MATLAB and compared with conventional multi-hop techniques under different network models and scenarios. In the simulation, we will show how the proposed EERSM technique overcomes many routing protocols in terms of the number of hops counted when sending packets from a source node to the destination (i.e. BS), the average residual energy, number of sent packets to the BS, and the number of a live sensor nodes verse the simulation rounds.

Scalable and Identifier/Locator-Splitting Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

In the traditional Intemet Protocol （IP） architecture, there is an overload of IP sermntic problems. Existing solutions focused mainly on the infrastructure for the fixed network, and there is a lack of support for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks （MANETs）. To improve scalability, a routing protocol for MANETs is presented based on a locator named Tree-structure Locator Distance Vector （TLDV）. The hard core of this routing method is the identifier/locator split by the Distributed Hash Table （DHT） method, which provides a scalable routing service. The node locator indicates its relative location in the network and should be updated whenever topology changes, kocator space ks organized as a tree-structure, and the basic routing operation of the TLDV protocol is presented. TLDV protocol is compared to some classical routing protocols for MANETs on the NS2 platform Results show that TLDV has better scalability. Key words：

Energy Efficient Constrained Shortest Path First-Based Joint Resource Allocation and Route Selection for Multi-Hop CRNs

Cognitive radio networks(CRNs) are expected to improve spectrum utilization efficiently by allowing secondary users(SUs) to opportunistically access the licensed spectrum of primary users(PUs).In CRNs,source and destination SUs may achieve information interaction in an ad hoc manner.In the case that no direct transmission link between the SU transmission pairs is available,multi-hop relay SUs can be applied to forward information for the source and destination SUs,resulting in multi-hop CRNs.In this paper,we consider a multi-hop CRN consisting of multiple PUs,SU transmission pairs and relay SUs.Stressing the importance of transmission hops and the tradeoff between data rate and power consumption,we propose an energy efficient constrained shortest path first(CSPF)-based joint resource allocation and route selection algorithm,which consists of two sub-algorithms,i.e.,CSPF-based route selection sub-algorithm and energy efficient resource allocation sub-algorithm.More specifically,we first apply CSPF-based route selection sub-algorithm to obtain the shortest candidate routes(SCRs) between the SU pair under the transmission constraints.Then,an energy efficient resource allocation problem of the SCRs is formulated and solved by applying iterative algorithm and Lagrange dual method.Simu-lation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Multihop Deterministic Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks MDR

The inception of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) has brought convenience into many lives with uninterrupted wireless network. The nodes that transmit data consist of heterogeneous and battery equipped sensor nodes (SNs) that are deployed randomly for network surveillance. To manage the random deployment of nodes, clustering algorithms are used with efficient routing protocols. This results in aggregation and dropping of redundant data packets that enables flawless data transmission from cluster nodes to Base Station (BS) via Cluster Heads (CHs). In this paper, a dynamic and multi-hop clustering and routing protocol for thorough behavior analysis is proposed, taking distance and energy into consideration. This forms a smooth routing path from the cluster nodes, CHs, Sub-CHs to the BS. On comparing proposed process with the existing system, experimental analysis shows a significant enhancement in the performance of network lifetime, with improved data aggregation, throughput, as the protocol showing deterministic behavior while traversing the network for data transmission, we name this protocol as Multi-hop Deterministic energy efficient Routing protocol (MDR).

Energy Efficiency in ARQ-Based Multi-Hop Systems and the Tradeoff with Throughput

The minimum energy per bit(EPB)as the energy efficiency(EE)metric in an automatic retransmission request(ARQ)based multi-hop system is analyzed under power and throughput constraints.Two ARQ protocols including type-I(ARQ-I)and repetition redundancy(ARQ-RR)are considered and expressions for the optimal power allocation(PA)are obtained.Using the obtained optimal powers,the EE-throughput tradeoff(EETT)is analyzed and the EETT closed-form expressions for both ARQ protocols and in arbitrary average channel gain values are obtained.It is shown that how different throughput requirements,especially the high levels,affect the EE performance.Additionally,asymptotic analysis is made in the feasible high throughput values and lower and upper EETT bounds are derived for ARQ-I protocol.To evaluate the EE a distributed PA scenario,as a benchmark,is presented and the energy savinggain obtained from the optimal PA in comparison with the distributed PA for ARQ-I and ARQ-RR protocols is discussed in different throughput values and node locations.

Performance analysis of QoS routing protocol for WiMedia networks

Though the WiMedia supports higher data rates than other WPAN technologies,a WiMedia device cannot reach other devices that are separated from it by more than 10 m,which is the typical limited transmission range of the WiMedia protocol.In this work,we propose a multi-hop QoS routing protocol to enable WiMedia devices to transmit real-time data to devices that are located out of the transmission range.The proposed routing protocol is a hybrid algorithm,which mixes the table-driven and on-demand routing algorithms,searching one or more routes according to the number of hops to a destination device.WiMedia MAC is potentially capable of learning the existence of neighbor devices by using a beacon frame.By utilizing the neighbors' information,all devices can create routing entries for devices within 2-hops periodically.For devices beyond the 2-hop range,the newly designed on-demand routing algorithm is applied to multi-hop routing.If a routing entry for a destination device is not listed in the routing table,the source device sends a request packet to 2-hop range devices which could be found in the routing table.Since every device maintains routing entries for 2-hop range devices in the routing table,the request packet is replied in advance before its arrival at the destination device.Also,to decide the optimal route for a destination device,the number of medium access slots(MASs),received signal strength indicator(RSSI)and hop count are utilized to establish a QoS-enabled routing table.We perform ns-2 simulation to investigate the performance of the proposed routing protocol with AODV and DSDV.The simulation results show that the proposed protocol has better throughput and lower overhead than other protocols.

Two-Tier Clustering with Routing Protocol for IoT Assisted WSN

In recent times,Internet of Things(IoT)has become a hot research topic and it aims at interlinking several sensor-enabled devices mainly for data gathering and tracking applications.Wireless Sensor Network(WSN)is an important component in IoT paradigm since its inception and has become the most preferred platform to deploy several smart city application areas like home automation,smart buildings,intelligent transportation,disaster management,and other such IoT-based applications.Clustering methods are widely-employed energy efficient techniques with a primary purpose i.e.,to balance the energy among sensor nodes.Clustering and routing processes are considered as Non-Polynomial(NP)hard problems whereas bio-inspired techniques have been employed for a known time to resolve such problems.The current research paper designs an Energy Efficient Two-Tier Clustering with Multi-hop Routing Protocol(EETTC-MRP)for IoT networks.The presented EETTC-MRP technique operates on different stages namely,tentative Cluster Head(CH)selection,final CH selection,and routing.In first stage of the proposed EETTC-MRP technique,a type II fuzzy logic-based tentative CH(T2FL-TCH)selection is used.Subsequently,Quantum Group Teaching Optimization Algorithm-based Final CH selection(QGTOA-FCH)technique is deployed to derive an optimum group of CHs in the network.Besides,Political Optimizer based Multihop Routing(PO-MHR)technique is also employed to derive an optimal selection of routes between CHs in the network.In order to validate the efficacy of EETTC-MRP method,a series of experiments was conducted and the outcomes were examined under distinct measures.The experimental analysis infers that the proposed EETTC-MRP technique is superior to other methods under different measures.

Optimized transmission coordination mechanisms for opportunistic routing

The successful rate of transmission coordination of opportunistic routing （OK） is analyzea systematically, and then two efficient transmission coordination mechanisms （TCMs） are proposed for OR： a batch sliding window-based TCM and a bit map-based TCM, to reduce the total number of packet transmissions and improve end-to-end throughput for OR. The batch sliding window-based TCM avoids the oscillation of the successful rate of transmission coordination by transmitting packets in continuous batch mode so as to improve the average successful rate of transmission coordination efficiently, while the bit map-based TCM improves end-to-end throughput of OR by reducing the overhead of transmission coordination. Exhaustive simulations show that the average end-to-end throughput gains of the two proposed TCMs are 15.4% and 6.4% over the batch map-based TCM, respectively.

An Improved Energy Balanced Dissimilar Clustered Routing Architecture for Wireless Sensor Networks

In wireless sensor networks, clustering of nodes effectively conserves considerable amount of energy resulting in increased network life-time. Clustering protocols do not consider density of nodes in cluster formation, which increases the possibility of hotspots in areas where the density of nodes is very less. If the node density is very high, cluster-heads may expend high energy leading to their early death. Existing cluster protocols that concentrate on energy conservation have not exhibited their impact on packet delivery and delay. In this proposed protocol, clusters are constructed based on the range of nodes, distance between neighbouring nodes and density of nodes over a region resulting in the formation of dissimilar clusters. With this method, the entire sensing region is considered to be a large circular region with base station positioned at the centre. Initially, the nodes that can be able to reach base station in a single hop are considered for constructing inner smaller circular regions over the entire region. This method is iterated for n-hop nodes until n-concentric circular regions are formed. These circular boundaries are reconstructed based on a distance metric, density of nodes and a divergence factor. Using this architecture, network analysis is done by routing data to the base station from different sized clusters. Based on simulation results, this new protocol Dynamic Unequal Clustered Routing (D-UCR), despite being energy efficient, showed better data delivery ratio and minimized delay when compared with other traditional clustering algorithms such as Leach and Equal Clustered Routing.

Location-aided and secure routing protocol for heterogeneous multi-hop wireless networks

Most of the existing routing protocols for heterogeneous multi-hop wireless networks （HWMNs） use on-demand routing protocols owing to their suitability for dynamic topology environments, but it causes wastes of network resources with large number of data packets being broadcast. Furthermore, some nodes in heterogeneous wireless multi-hop networksmay be malicious or selfish nodes which can easily lead to link attacks. A novel routing protocol called trust-based secure routing protocol with auxiliary of nodes＇ location information （TSRAL） is proposed for the establishment of a secure routing protocol with a lower overhead for HWMNs which combines the location information and trust value of nodes to select the next forwarding nodes. The destination node selects an optimal path from multiple paths according to the total trust value and the hop number of routes. Simulation results demonstrate that TSRAL can not only reduce the number of hops and data packets being broadcast in the process of routing but also ensure the safety of the route.

A Hybrid Marine Predator Algorithm for Thermal-aware Routing Scheme in Wireless Body Area Networks

Thermal-aware routing protocols in WBANs consider temperature factors in the routing process for preventing overheating of the tissues surrounding the sensor nodes.However,providing an energy-efficient and thermal-aware routing in WBANs is a challenging issue.To deal with this problem,this article presents a novel temperature-aware routing protocol that applies Mamdani-based Fuzzy Logic Controllers(FLCs)for selecting the next forwarding node in routing data packets.These FLCs apply five important input factors such as the priority of the packet,and sensor node's remaining energy,temperature,distance,and link path loss.Also,a new hybrid version of the Marine Predator Algorithm(MPA),named MPAOA is presented by combining the exploration and exploitation phases of the MPA and Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm(AOA).This algorithm is effectively applied for selecting the best possible set of fuzzy rules for FLCs and tuning their fuzzy sets.Extensive experiments conducted in the Castalia simulator exhibit that the proposed temperature and priority-aware routing scheme can outperform other well-known routing schemes such as LATOR,TTRP,TAEO,ATAR,and EOCC-TARA in terms of metrics such as sensor nodes lifetime,the average temperature of the sensor nodes,and the percentage of the packets routed through non-overheated paths.Besides,it is shown that the MPAOA outperforms other algorithms such as Bat Algorithm(BA),Genetic Algorithm(GA),AOA,and MPA regarding the specified metrics.

Multi-Hop Routing Optimization Method Based on Improved Ant Algorithm for Vehicle to Roadside Network

This paper proposes a route optimization method to improve the performance of route selection in Vehicle Ad-hoc Network （VANET）. A novel bionic swarm intelligence algorithm, which is called ant colony algorithm, was introduced into a traditional ad-hoc route algorithm named AODV. Based on the analysis of movement characteristics of vehicles and according to the spatial relationship between the vehicles and the roadside units, the parameters in ant colony system were modified to enhance the performance of the route selection probability rules. When the vehicle moves into the range of several different roadsides, it could build the route by sending some route testing packets as ants, so that the route table can be built by the reply information of test ants, and then the node can establish the optimization path to send the application packets. The simulation results indicate that the proposed algorithm has better performance than the traditional AODV algorithm, especially when the vehicle is in higher speed or the number of nodes increases.

Routing protocol for wireless quantum multi-hop mesh backbone network based on partially entangled GHZ state

Quantum multi-hop teleportation is important in the field of quantum communication. In this study, we propose a quantum multi-hop communication model and a quantum routing protocol with multi- hop teleportation for wireless mesh backbone networks. Based on an analysis of quantum multi-hop protocols, a partially entangled Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger （GHZ） state is selected as the quantum channel for the proposed protocol. Both quantum and classical wireless channels exist between two neighboring nodes along the route. With the proposed routing protocol, quantum information can be transmitted hop by hop from the source node to the destination node. Based on multi-hop telepor- tation based on the partially entangled GHZ state, a quantum route established with the minimum number of hops. The difference between our routing protocol and the classical one is that in the for- mer, the processes used to find a quantum route and establish quantum channel entanglement occur simultaneously. The Bell state measurement results of each hop are piggybacked to quantum route finding information. This method reduces the total number of packets and the magnitude of air inter- face delay. The deduction of the establishment of a quantum channel between source and destination is also presented here. The final success probability of quantum multi-hop teleportation in wireless mesh backbone networks was simulated and analyzed. Our research shows that quantum multi-hop teleportation in wireless mesh backbone networks through a partially entangled GHZ state is feasible.

Multi-hop routing for energy-efficiency enhancement in relay-assisted device-to-device communication

Financial and environment considerations present new trends in wireless network known as green communication. As one of the most promising network architectures, the device-to-device （D2D） communication should take seriously account to the energy-efficiency. Most of the existing work in the area of D2D communication only focus on the direct communication, however, the direct link D2D communication has to be limited in practice because of long distance, poor propagation medium and cellular interference, etc. A new energy-efficient multi-hop routing algorithm was investigated for multi-hop D2D system by jointly optimizing channel reusing and power allocation. Firstly, the energy-efficient multi-hop routing problem was formulated as a combinatorial optimization problem. Secondly, to obtain a desirable solution with reasonable computation cost, a heuristic multi-hop routing algorithm was presented to solve the formulated problem and to achieve a satisfactory energy-efficiency performance. Simulation shows the effectiveness of the proposed routing algorithm.

Distributed wireless quantum communication networks with partially entangled pairs

Wireless quantum communication networks transfer quantum state by teleportation. Existing research focuses on maximal entangled pairs. In this paper, we analyse the distributed wireless quantum communication networks with partially entangled pairs. A quantum routing scheme with multi-hop teleportation is proposed. With the proposed scheme, is not necessary for the quantum path to be consistent with the classical path. The quantum path and its associated classical path are established in a distributed way. Direct multi-hop teleportation is conducted on the selected path to transfer a quantum state from the source to the destination. Based on the feature of multi-hop teleportation using partially entangled pairs, if the node number of the quantum path is even, the destination node will add another teleportation at itself. We simulated the performance of distributed wireless quantum communication networks with a partially entangled state. The probability of transferring the quantum state successfully is statistically analyzed. Our work shows that multi-hop teleportation on distributed wireless quantum networks with partially entangled pairs is feasible.

Weak node protection to maximize the lifetime of wirelesssensor networks

Wireless sensor networks （WSN） provide an approachto collecting distributed monitoring data and transmiting them tothe sink node. This paper proposes a WSN-based multi-hop networkinfrastructure, to increase network lifetime by optimizing therouting strategy. First, a network model is established, an operatingcontrol strategy is devised, and energy consumption characteristicsare analyzed. Second, a fast route-planning algorithm isproposed to obtain the original path that takes into account the remainingenergy of communicating nodes and the amount of energyconsumed in data transmission. Next, considering the amount ofenergy consumed by an individual node and the entire network,a criterion function is established to describe node performanceand to evaluate data transmission ability. Finally, a route optimizingalgorithm is proposed to increase network lifetime by adjusting thetransmission route in protection of the weak node （the node withlow transmission ability）. Simulation and comparison experimentalresults demonstrate the good performance of the proposed algorithmsto increase network lifetime.