Sino-Russian cooperation on the sustainable utilization of Arctic biological resources: modernizing traditional knowledge

Considering the effects of global warming,humans need to face the possibility of an ice-free Arctic during summer.Russia spans Eurasia and occupies more Arctic lands than any other country.This vast area has a great variety of species,and the geography and environment of the Arctic have endowed these species with unique and valuable properties.All the world’s ancient nations have their traditional knowledge.The indigenous traditional knowledge of the Arctic and the knowledge embedded in traditional Chinese medicine are part of the world’s time-honored wisdom.Some of this ancient lore cannot be verified by modern scientific methods,but the methods are effective in practice,triggering further exploration and innovation.Russian Arctic indigenous people have a long history of using the Arctic biological resources.The use of therapeutic materials in traditional Chinese medicine has many similarities with the use of Arctic biological resources by indigenous peoples.Both types of traditional knowledge can inspire new approaches to the development of the Arctic biological resources.China and Russia are among the world’s largest countries,and it is important that they cooperate in developing the Arctic biological resources.The development of sustainable use of these resources,while updating traditional knowledge,is an urgently needed investment that requires an innovative approach.

Traditional agroecological knowledge and practices:The drivers and opportunities for adaptation actions in the northern region of Ghana

Agroecological practices are promoted as a more proactive approach than conventional agriculture to achieving a collective global response to climate change and variability while building robust and resilient agricultural systems to meet food needs and protect the integrity of ecosystems.There is relatively limited evidence on the key traditional agroecological knowledge and practices adopted by smallholder farmers,the factors that influence smallholder farmers’decision to adopt these practices,and the opportunities it presents for building resilient agricultural systems.Using a multi-scale mixed method approach,we conducted key informant interviews(n=12),focus group discussions(n=5),and questionnaire surveys(N=220)to explore the traditional agroecological knowledge and practices,the influencing factors,and the opportunities smallholder farmers presented for achieving resilient agricultural systems.Our findings suggest that smallholder farmers employ a suite of traditional agroecological knowledge and practices to enhance food security,combat climate change,and build resilient agricultural systems.The most important traditional agroecological knowledge and practices in the study area comprise cultivating leguminous crops,mixed crop-livestock systems,and crop rotation,with Relative Importance Index(RII)values of 0.710,0.708,and 0.695,respectively.It is reported that the choice of these practices by smallholder farmers is influenced by their own farming experience,access to market,access to local resources,information,and expertise,and the perceived risk of climate change.Moreover,the results further show that improving household food security and nutrition,improving soil quality,control of pest and disease infestation,and support from NonGovernmental Organizations(NGOs)and local authorities are opportunities for smallholder farmers in adopting traditional agroecological knowledge and practices for achieving resilient agricultural systems.The findings call into question the need for stakeholders and policy-makers at all levels to develop capacity and increase the awareness of traditional agroecological knowledge and practices as mechanisms to ensure resilient agricultural systems for sustainable food security.

Expression model for multiple relationships in the ontology of traditional Chinese medicine knowledge

Objective:To explore multiple relationships in traditional Chinese medicine(TCM)knowledge by comparing binary and multiple relationships during knowledge organization.Methods:Characteristics of binary and multiple semantic relationships as well as their associations are described.A method to classify multiple relationships based on the involvement of time is proposed and theoretically validated using examples from the ancient TCM classic Important Formulas Worth a Thousand Gold Pieces.The classification includes parallel multiple relationships,restricted multiple relationships,multiple relationships that involve time,and multiple relationships that involve time restriction.Next,construction of multiple semantic relationships for TCM concepts in each classification using Protege,an ontology editing tool is described.Results:Protege is superior to a binary relationship and less than ideal with multiple relationships during the constitution of concept relationships.Conclusion:When applied in TCM,the semantic relationships constructed by Protege are superior than those constructed by correlation and/or attribute relationships,but less ideal than those constructed by the human cognitive process.

Application of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Food and Water Security in the Semi-Arid Turkana County, Kenya

Weather extremes negatively affect socioeconomic developments in arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs) and increase vulnerability of residents to food and water insecurity. Thus, communities adapt to such extremes of weather using Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and/or Modern Technologies. Modern farming technologies and land resource developments in ASALs have in past ignored TEK, and in most cases led to undesired outcomes. It’s against this backdrop that this study was conceived to assess TEK among the Turkana people, its application and contribution to food and water security. The research adopted a cross-sectional social survey in collecting data from Central Turkana Sub-County residents. The study revealed that the Turkana people possess vast knowledge related to their environment;that this TEK plays a significant role in food production, preservation and in natural resource management. For instance, in 82% of the respondents use TEK in enhancing livestock production through the selection of livestock species that are suitable and drought tolerant;over 70% of them use TEK in reducing risk associated with livestock losses due to prolonged droughts. Further, TEK influenced the development and conservation of the water resources (r = 0.631;p < 0.01) including siting boreholes and wells. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.755;p < 0.01) between TEK and food security. TEK should be incorporated into the decision-making processes involving development projects within the ASALs.

Ethnobotany and Indigenous Traditional Knowledge in Brazil: Contributions to Research in Ecopsychology

This paper is the result of an investigation of the flora and traditionalknowledge in the conception of Javaé indigenous people from the Txuirivillage located on Bananal Island, Brazil. The objective is to investigatethe plants used by these indigenous people, their diverse uses and tounderstand how traditional knowledge is passed on to new generations.This is a qualitative, descriptive and interdisciplinary survey, whose datacollection strategies included the application of semi-structured questionnairesand collection of plants for cataloguing according to AngiospermPhylogeny Group or APG III (2009). We identified 26 plant species, usedfor various purposes such as medicinal use, food, construction, craft andcultural, which were deposited in the Herbarium of the Federal Universityof Tocantins. Roots, stem and leaf are the plant parts most used bythe community. The plants mentioned were most frequently found on thebanks of the Javaés River and in the backyard of the residences. Significanttraditional knowledge of these people about the plants are transmittedto new generations, through visual, orality and experimentation. Ethnobotanicalstudies strengthen research in ecopsychology while allowingresearch into the interactions between human populations and plants.

Reviewing the medicinal potential of Valeriana jatamansi Jones:its traditional uses,phytochemistry,and pharmacological activities

Objectives:To gather updated information on the traditional uses,phytochemistry,and pharmacological activities of Valeriana jatamansi Jones.Background:V.jatamansi is indigenous to the Himalayas immensely used as traditional folk remedy.It contains a variety of secondary metabolites that give it a high medicinal and therapeutic values.For the purpose of collecting relevant information on V.jatamansi,a comprehensive literature search was conducted.Based on ethnobotanical sources and historical records,traditional uses were compiled.Scientific articles and databases were consulted for phytochemical data.In order to assess the plant’s therapeutic properties,pharmacological studies were reviewed.Summary:The botanical is known for its ethnobotanical uses ranging from sedative and anxiolytic effects to treating insomnia,epilepsy,and gastrointestinal disorders.Indigenous healing practices rely heavily on its traditional uses.Based on the phytochemical analysis,it contains a diverse array of bioactive compounds,including sesquiterpenoids and iridoids.Valerenic acid and jatamansinol,among other compounds,contribute to its therapeutic potential.A broad spectrum of pharmacological activities is found including anxiety-relieving,sedative,anti-inflammatory,neuroprotective,and antimicrobial effects.Outlook:Based on the evidence supporting ethnomedicinal uses of V.jatamansi,its immense biopotential and multiple pharmacological roles,standard clinical trials are required to evaluate its therapeutic potential.

Exploring the medicinal heritage: traditional applications of vertebrates and their by-products in human and veterinary remedies in India

Indigenous peoples are the custodians of traditional knowledge,encompassing their ideas,innovations,and methods.Throughout history,both plants and animals have served as valuable sources for medicinal remedies,capable of treating or preventing illnesses.This article aims to offer a concise overview of the traditional medical uses of vertebrates and the derived products in both human and veterinary medicine.Animal species are utilized as raw materials,and the resulting products are employed to cure a wide array of ailments.In different regions of India,indigenous peoples have diverse traditional applications for vertebrates and their by-products,which are utilized to treat human and animal illnesses.In various parts of India,medical practices involve the use of forty percent mammals,seven percent birds,eleven percent reptiles,eight percent fish,and two percent amphibians.Kerala employs around 69 different animal species and their by-products for the treatment of human and veterinary ailments.Similarly,the Theni district of Tamil Nadu utilizes 69 animals,the state of Madhya Pradesh employs 18 animals,the state of Tripura utilizes 25 animals,and the state of Assam employs 44 animals for the treatment of human and veterinary illnesses.Consequently,the main objective of this review is to provide a summary of the traditional therapeutic applications of animals and the resulting products.

Ethnobotanical survey of plants traditionally used against hematophagous invertebrates by ethnic groups in the mountainous area of Xishuangbanna, Southwest China

Hematophagous invertebrates such as mosquitoes,leeches,mites,ticks,lice and bugs cause various problems for humans.Considering reports on insecticide resistance and requirements for improved environmental and toxicological profiles,there is a continuing need to discover and develop new insecticides and repellents.Ethnobotanical surveys of traditional plant-based repellents provide a direct method of identifying plants for potential use.During five field surveys in Bulang,Jinuo and Lahu villages between August 2018 and July 2019,semi-structured interviews were conducted with 237 informants(151 male,86 female;mean age 63).Frequency of citation,use value,informant consensus factor and Jaccard index were employed to statistically analyze the collected data.A total of 709 use reports relating to 32 plant species and 71 remedies were collected.Similarities and differences between the three groups,as well as the Dai and Hani of Xishuangbanna,who were studied earlier,were shown through network analysis.These five ethnic groups living in the same area have a common understanding of traditional botanical knowledge against hematophagous invertebrates,but each group also possesses unique knowledge.Recording and protecting this traditional knowledge is potentially useful for protecting this cultural diversity and related biodiversity and can also have important practical applications.In this study,traditional knowledge provided us with many new potential plants for follow-up research for the development of new insecticides and repellents,among which Artemisia indica,Nicotiana tabacum and Clausena excavata are the most promising.

Ethnobotany of food,medicinal,construction and household utilities producing plants in Cikaniki,Gunung Halimun Salak National Park,Indonesia

The community living around the Cikaniki Area of Gunung Halimun Salak National Park(CAGHSNP)uses various plants to fulfill their needs.Their habits are related to indigenous knowledge of using plants as food,medicine,construction,and household utilities,which dynamic societal changes have not displaced.This study aimed to inventory and update potential plants used as food,medicine,construction,and household utilities by local communities in the Cikaniki area,and measure and analyze their cultural and ethnobotanical value.This study objected to five hamlets in the Cikaniki at Malasari Village,Nanggung District,Bogor Regency,West Java,Indonesia.The quantitative analysis was calculated based on the Informant Consensus Factor,Fidelity Level,and Use Value.We analyzed the qualitative data based on the data collection through observation,interviews,and documentation from informants and respondents in five hamlets.The study recorded 199 plant species from 75 families used by the community of CA-GHSNP.The most utilized species in Cikaniki were Staurogyne elongata,Caryota mitis,Blumea balsamifera,Castanopsis argentea,Pilea melastomoides,and Piper betle.There are 72 species of plants used as food,122species for medicinal purposes,and 50 species of plants used for construction and household utilities.The potential plant species in the CA-GHSNP,their utilization categories,and recommendation for conservation strategy are discussed.

Botanical drugs for bruises used in the Xiangxi region of China, a place rich in martial culture

Background:Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture,located in Hunan Province,China,is a culturally rich region with a diverse population.The locals have a deep martial arts history and possess a wealth of traditional knowledge for treating bruises.Methods:In order to investigate this topic,we conducted ethnobotanical studies by visiting local medicinal markets and conducting interviews.Results:We identified 43 botanical drugs used for treating bruises,categorized into four types:sprains,contusions,strains,and bone injuries.The local people typically prefer to mash these botanical drugs freshly or make medicinal wine for external use.Treatment often involves a combination of drugs to promote blood circulation and remove blood stasis,with medications to dispel rheumatism,clear heat,and detoxify,tailored to the humid climate and high precipitation in mountainous areas.Based on the fidelity level values,the local plant resources with high acceptance,utilization,or potential value in the treatment of bruises included Sargentodoxa cuneata,Lycopodium japonicum,Dioscorea cirrhosa,Panax japonicus,Achyranthes bidentata,Lysimachia heterogenea and so on.Conclusion:Herbal medicine and related knowledge for treating bruises are diverse and rich in the Xiangxi region.However,the local traditional medicinal knowledge faces challenges regarding inheritance due to regional modernization.Therefore,it is crucial to protect and further study this knowledge in the future.

Integrated watershed management:evolution,development and emerging trends

Watershed management is an ever-evolving practice involving the management of land, water, biota, and other resources in a defined area for ecological, social, and economic purposes. In this paper, we explore the following questions： How has watershed management evolved？ What new tools are available and how can they be integrated into sustainable watershed management？ To address these questions, we discuss the process of developing integrated watershed management strategies for sustainable manage- ment through the incorporation of adaptive management techniques and traditional ecological knowledge. We address the numerous benefits from integration acrossdisciplines and jurisdictional boundaries, as well as the incorporation of technological advancements, such as remote sensing, GIS, big data, and multi-level social-eco- logical systems analysis, into watershed management strategies. We use three case studies from China, Europe, and Canada to review the success and failure of integrated watershed management in addressing different ecological, social, and economic dilemmas in geographically diverse locations. Although progress has been made in watershed management strategies, there are still numerous issues impeding successful management outcomes; many of which can be remedied through holistic management approaches, incorporation of cutting-edge science and technology, and cross-jurisdictional coordination. We conclude by high- lighting that future watershed management will need to account for climate change impacts by employing techno- logical advancements and holistic, cross-disciplinary approaches to ensure watersheds continue to serve their ecological, social, and economic functions. We present three case studies in this paper as a valuable resource for scientists, resource managers, government agencies, and other stakeholders aiming to improve integrated watershed management strategies and more efficiently and successfully achieve ecological and socio-economic management objectives.

An ethnobotanical study of forage plants in Zhuxi County in the Qinba mountainous area of central China

In the Qinba mountainous area of Central China,pig farming has a significant impact on the growth of the rural economy and has substantially increased farmer incomes.Traditional knowledge plays an important role in the selection of forage plant species for pig farming by local people.This study aimed to identify the forage plants used for pig feeding and to catalog indigenous knowledge regarding their use.During 2016 and 2017,ethnobotanical surveys and inventories were conducted in Zhuxi County,Hubei Province,China.Data were collected using semi-structured interviews,key informant reports,free listings,guided field walks,and participatory observations with 77 households in 16 villages in 13 towns/townships.The obtained data were analyzed using a relative frequency citation(RFC)index.Overall,145 wild forage plants from 91 genera and 31 families were recorded.The most cited families were Asteraceae,Polygonaceae,Urticaceae,Amaranthaceae,Fabaceae,Cruciferae,Caryophyllaceae,and Lamiaceae.Whole plants(75.9%)and tender leaves(12.4%)were the most frequently used parts of the plants.Most of the forage plants were herbaceous(88.9%).Almost all forage plants could be collected throughout the year(62.7%).Raw and cooked were the two main preparation methods.The most frequently cited species were Taraxacum mongolicum,Bidens pilosa,Sonchus oleraceus,Pilea verrucosa,and Pilea pumila var.obtusifolia.A total of 14 species were identified as the top forage plants in Zhuxi County based on their RFC values(RFC value greater than 0.5).Local people possess rich traditional knowledge about the utilization and management of forage plants for pig feeding.However,the maintenance of this traditional knowledge may be seriously threatened by changes in pig feeding modes and the lack of successors.Appropriate strategies and action plans have been suggested for the conservation of traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity and the sustainable use of forage species resources.These include 1)taking targeted measures to protect forage resources and associated traditional knowledge;2)strengthening research on the forage plants with the highest RFC values for nutritional value,digestibility,other functions,and ecological status;and 3)enhancing the identification of poisonous forage plants.

Distribution pattern and conservation of threatened medicinal and aromatic plants of Central Himalaya, India

A study was conducted to examine the distribution pattern of four rhizomatous medicinal and aromatic plant species （MAPs） viz., Angelica glauca, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Rheum emodi and Arne- bia benthamii in different forest stands in Central Himalaya. Results show that A. glauca and P. angelicoides had a higher （50%） frequency at Chipkoan, Garpak and Phagati forest, R. emodi had a higher （60%） frequency at Rishikund, Suki and Himtoli, and A. benthamii had a higher （70%） frequency at Suki and Khambdhar The densities of A. glauca （0.6 plants·m -2 ） and P. angelicoides （0.5 plants·m -2 ） were higher at Chipkoan and Garpak sites than at other micro-sites, while densities of R. emodi （0.8 plants·m -2 ） and A. benthamii （1.0 plants·m -2 ） were higher at Suki and Khambdhar sites. A. glauca had highest total basal covers （TBC） （1.2 cm 2 ·m -2 ） at Chipkoan, P. angelicoides had highest TBC （0.92 cm 2 ·m -2） at Lati kharak site, A. benthamii had the highest TBC （6.48 cm 2 ·m -2 ） atKhambdhar, and R. emodi had highest TBC （4.53 cm 2 ·m -2 ） at Rishikund. For the four studied species, A. glauca showed a contagious distribution, P. angelicoides and R. emodi showed the random and A. benthamii showed the regular type of distribution.

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants from the Dragon Boat Festival herbal markets of Qianxinan, southwestern Guizhou, China

Dragon Boat Festival herbal markets in the Qianxinan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of southwestern Guizhou have a long well-conserved history.These markets,which are a feature of Buyi and Miao traditional medicines,contain a rich diversity of medicinal plants and traditional medical knowledge.Today,people in southwestern Guizhou still believe that using herbs during the Dragon Boat Festival prevents and can treat disease.In this study,we identified the fresh herbal plants sold at the herbal markets of Xingren City and Zhenfeng County in Qianxinan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture and quantified their importance.We identified 141 plant species(belonging to 114 genera and 61 families).The plant family with the most species was Asteraceae(14 species).Informants reported that most medicinal plants are herbaceous,with 95.7%of plants used for decoction and 30.5%used for medicinal baths.Medicinal plants are most commonly used to treat rheumatism,injury,and abdominal diseases.The utilization frequency index and relative importance values indicated that Artemisia argyi and Acorus calamus are the most important plants sold at herbal markets during the Dragon Boat Festival.The price of medicinal materials sold in the market may serve as an indicator of the conservation status of species in the region.These findings indicate that the Dragon Boat Festival herbal markets in the Qianxinan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture fully embodies the characteristics of indigenous ethnomedicine and culture,and also exhibits the diversity of plant resources.We recommend that rare and endangered plants in this region be domesticated and protected.

Indian time:time,seasonality,and culture in Traditional Ecological Knowledge of climate change

Introduction:Western climate science and Traditional Ecological Knowledge(TEK)represent complementary and overlapping views of the causes and consequences of change.In particular,observations of changes in abundance,distribution,phenology,or behavior of the natural environment(including plants and animals)can have a rich cultural and spiritual interpretation in Indigenous communities that may not be present in western science epistemologies.Results:Using interviews with Indigenous elders and other Traditional Knowledge holders,we demonstrate that assumptions about the nature,perception,and utilization of time and timing can differ across knowledge systems in regard to climate change.Conclusions:Our interviewees’focus on relationality predisposes them to notice interactional changes among humans and other species,to be sensitive to smaller scale examples of change,to be more likely to see climate change as part of a broader time scale,and to link changes to a greater suite of socio-political phenomena,including the long arc of colonialism.One implication of this research and the interactions among humans and other species is that policies restricting Native and non-Native access to resources(i.e.,hunting and fishing)to certain calendar seasons may need to be revisited in a changing climate.

Skincare plants of the Naxi of NW Yunnan, China

The Naxi of Northwest Yunnan,China use medicinal plants to treat skin conditions related to traditional lifestyles in extreme environments.However,modernization endangers both the medicinal plants used to treat skin conditions and traditional knowledge.Therefore,investigation and documentation of the medicinal plants used and associated traditional knowledge is necessary.In this study,we conducted an ethnobotanical survey in 12 Naxi communities in Northwest Yunnan.For this purpose,we used semistructured surveys to interview 840 informants from Naxi communities.We used informant consensus factor and use frequency as quantitative indices to evaluate the importance of medicinal plant species.A total of 161 medicinal plant species belonging to 69 families were documented.The highest informant consensus factor(ICF)values were recorded for skin nourishing(ICF?0.849),frostbite and chapped skin(ICF?0.833).These skin treatments are highly related to the environment and lifestyle of Naxi communities.The main active compounds of plants used to treat skin conditions in Naxi communities are known to have skin-treating properties.This study reveals that the skin conditions treated by the Naxi are associated with traditional medicine culture and social economic development.In addition,this study uses ethnobotanical indices to explain how skin condition treatments are linked to the natural environment of Naxi communities.

Ethno-Medico-Biology of Bhadrak district, Odisha, India

We carried out an ethno-medico-biological investigation in the interior of Bhadrak district, Odisha, India to explore the therapeutic use of traditional plants/animals by local inhabitants. The villagers and rural people used plant and animal species as medicine. We recorded therapeutic use of 18 plant species of 13 families and 12 animal species of seven taxonomic categories. Different plant/animal parts like bark, leaf, flower, seed, stem, root, whole plant, oil, blood, milk, urine and flesh were reported as used in raw or cooked form against 17 specific diseases. Prominent diseases treated by plant/animal remedies were asthma, cardiovascular ailments, diabetes, epilepsy, jaundice, malaria, skin disorder and rheumatism. This study provides a better database for future studies.

Acacia karroo Hayne:Ethnomedicinal uses,phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important medicinal plant in southern Africa

Acacia karroo(A.karroo) has been used as herbal medicine by the indigenous people of southern Africa for several centuries.The potential of.4.karroo as herbal medicine,its associated phytochemistry and biological activities are reviewed.The extensive literature survey revealed that A.karroo is traditionally used to treat or manage 32 and five human and animal diseases and ailmenls.respectively.The species is used as herbal medicine for diseases and ailments such as colds,diarrhoea,dysentery,flu.malaria,sexually transmitted infections(STis),wounds,and also as colic and ethnovetcrinary medicine.Multiple classes of phytochemicals such as flavonoids.phenols,phytosterols,proanthocyanidin.tannin,terpenes as well as several minerals have been identified from leaves and roots of A.karroo.Scientific studies on A.karroo indicate that it has a wide range of pharmacological activities which include antibacterial,antifungal,antigonococcal.antihelmintic,antilisterial,antimalarial,antimycobacterial,antioxidant.HIV-1 reverse transcriptase,anti-inflammatory and analgesic.Acacia karroo has a lot of potential as a possible source of pharmaceutical products for the treatment of a wide range of both human and animal diseases and ailments.Future research should focus on the mechanisms of action of the different plant parts used as herbal medicines.isolated compounds,their efficacy,toxicity and clinical relevance.

Native useful vascular plants of China:A checklist and use patterns

Of all types of interactions between humans and plants,the utilization of plants by people is the most direct and influential.China has a long history of using native plants and a large body of recorded knowledge on uses.Here,we present an inventory of plant uses in China based on an extensive survey of the literature.Twelve categories of usage are recognized(medicinal,edible,etc.),these categories being chosen according to an integration of various current standards.A total of 50,521 use-citations were recorded,covering 10,808 species and infraspecies,representing 28%of the Chinese flora.Additional information is included in the dataset on taxonomy and endangerment status.Analysis of the data reveals that the eight plant families with the greatest numbers of species used in China,namely Asteraceae,Fabaceae,Rosaceae,Ranunculaceae,Poaceae,Lamiaceae,Orchidaceae,and Liliaceae,are also the top eight most species-rich Chinese plant families.However,there are some families that are overrepresented or under-representation in certain use categories,compared with their relative abundance in the total flora.There are indications that rare and endangered species are being subject to some degree of over-exploitation.A disproportionately high number of used species are Chinese endemics(3552 species,representing over 33%of used species).A total of 20%of used species have been classified as threatened nationally or globally,according to at least one of the various threat assessments that have been made for the Chinese flora.This comprehensive inventory of the useful plants of China,with relevant ethnobotanical information included,provides a baseline for further studies of plant resources.It will be useful in follow-up research.The scientific dataset it contains will be useful for the protection and sustainable utilization of plant resources in China.

Overview of Taiwan's Indigenous Ethnopharmacology in the Perspective of Traditional Knowledge Protection

Ethnopharmacology, the study of ethnic use of drugs, opens up the crucial gateway to understanding and promoting traditional medicine in the new age. Taiwan is a unique region where traditional medicine and herbal therapeutics have been benefiting its people of multiple races for centuries. This article overviews Taiwan＇s indigenous traditional medicine and the emerging status of ethnopharmacology study, and outlines the globa~ scenario of the inheritance and development of traditional medicine. In such a scope of knowledge protection, this article particularly highlights the challenges with bioprospecting and biopiracy, and summarizes the current measures for protection of traditional knowledge in Taiwan. Finally, based upon these analyses, we propose rational strategies for promoting Taiwan＇s ethnopharmacology, from multiple angles of resource, economy, policy and law. We conclude that four measures, namely （1） protecting the natural environment of biodiversity, （2） avoiding unnecessary conflicts caused by bioprospecting and biopiracy, （3） strengthening the international collaboration, and （4） upgrading the legal system of traditional intelligence, would be the right paths for Taiwan to protect its invaluable heritage of traditional medicine and the knowledge of ethnoDharmacoloov therein.