Reviewing electrochemical stability of ionic liquids-/deep eutectic solvents-based electrolytes in lithium-ion,lithium-metal and post-lithium-ion batteries for green and safe energy

Sustainable energy is the key issue for the environment protection,human activity and economic development.Ionic liquids(ILs)and deep eutectic solvents(DESs)are dogmatically regarded as green and sustainable electrolytes in lithium-ion,lithium-metal(e.g.,lithium-sulphur,lithium-oxygen)and post-lithium-ion(e.g.,sodium-ion,magnesium-ion,and aluminum-ion)batteries.High electrochemical stability of ILs/DESs is one of the prerequisites for green,sustainable and safe energy;while easy electrochemical decomposition of ILs/DESs would be contradictory to the concept of green chemistry by adding the cost,releasing volatile/hazardous by-products and hindering the recyclability.However,(1)are ILs/DESs-based electrolytes really electrochemically stable when they are not used in batteries?(2)are ILs/DESs-based electrolytes really electrochemically stable in real batteries?(3)how to design ILs/DESs-based electrolytes with high electrochemical stability for batteries to achieve sustainability and green development?Up to now,there is no summary on this topic,to the best of our knowledge.Here,we review the effect of chemical structure and non-structural factors on the electrochemical stability of ILs/DESs in simulated conditions.More importantly,electrochemical stability of ILs/DESs in real lithium-ion,lithium-metal and post-lithium-ion batteries is concluded and compared.Finally,the strategies to improve the electrochemical stability of ILs/DESs in lithium-ion,lithium-metal and post-lithium-ion batteries are proposed.This review would provide a guide to design ILs/DESs with high electrochemical stability for lithium-ion,lithium-metal and postlithium-ion batteries to achieve sustainable and green energy.

Mechanism of internal thermal runaway propagation in blade batteries

Blade batteries are extensively used in electric vehicles,but unavoidable thermal runaway is an inherent threat to their safe use.This study experimentally investigated the mechanism underlying thermal runaway propagation within a blade battery by using a nail to trigger thermal runaway and thermocouples to track its propagation inside a cell.The results showed that the internal thermal runaway could propagate for up to 272 s,which is comparable to that of a traditional battery module.The velocity of the thermal runaway propagation fluctuated between 1 and 8 mm s^(-1),depending on both the electrolyte content and high-temperature gas diffusion.In the early stages of thermal runaway,the electrolyte participated in the reaction,which intensified the thermal runaway and accelerated its propagation.As the battery temperature increased,the electrolyte evaporated,which attenuated the acceleration effect.Gas diffusion affected thermal runaway propagation through both heat transfer and mass transfer.The experimental results indicated that gas diffusion accelerated the velocity of thermal runaway propagation by 36.84%.We used a 1D mathematical model and confirmed that convective heat transfer induced by gas diffusion increased the velocity of thermal runaway propagation by 5.46%-17.06%.Finally,the temperature rate curve was analyzed,and a three-stage mechanism for internal thermal runaway propagation was proposed.In Stage I,convective heat transfer from electrolyte evaporation locally increased the temperature to 100℃.In Stage II,solid heat transfer locally increases the temperature to trigger thermal runaway.In StageⅢ,thermal runaway sharply increases the local temperature.The proposed mechanism sheds light on the internal thermal runaway propagation of blade batteries and offers valuable insights into safety considerations for future design.

A Two-Layer Encoding Learning Swarm Optimizer Based on Frequent Itemsets for Sparse Large-Scale Multi-Objective Optimization

Traditional large-scale multi-objective optimization algorithms(LSMOEAs)encounter difficulties when dealing with sparse large-scale multi-objective optimization problems(SLM-OPs)where most decision variables are zero.As a result,many algorithms use a two-layer encoding approach to optimize binary variable Mask and real variable Dec separately.Nevertheless,existing optimizers often focus on locating non-zero variable posi-tions to optimize the binary variables Mask.However,approxi-mating the sparse distribution of real Pareto optimal solutions does not necessarily mean that the objective function is optimized.In data mining,it is common to mine frequent itemsets appear-ing together in a dataset to reveal the correlation between data.Inspired by this,we propose a novel two-layer encoding learning swarm optimizer based on frequent itemsets(TELSO)to address these SLMOPs.TELSO mined the frequent terms of multiple particles with better target values to find mask combinations that can obtain better objective values for fast convergence.Experi-mental results on five real-world problems and eight benchmark sets demonstrate that TELSO outperforms existing state-of-the-art sparse large-scale multi-objective evolutionary algorithms(SLMOEAs)in terms of performance and convergence speed.

Managing the surge:A comprehensive review of the entire disposal framework for retired lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles

Anticipating the imminent surge of retired lithium-ion batteries(R-LIBs)from electric vehicles,the need for safe,cost-effective and environmentally friendly disposal technologies has escalated.This paper seeks to offer a comprehensive overview of the entire disposal framework for R-LIBs,encompassing a broad spectrum of activities,including screening,repurposing and recycling.Firstly,we delve deeply into a thorough examination of current screening technologies,shifting the focus from a mere enumeration of screening methods to the exploration of the strategies for enhancing screening efficiency.Secondly,we outline battery repurposing with associated key factors,summarizing stationary applications and sizing methods for R-LIBs in their second life.A particular light is shed on available reconditioning solutions,demonstrating their great potential in facilitating battery safety and lifetime in repurposing scenarios and identifying their techno-economic issues.In the realm of battery recycling,we present an extensive survey of pre-treatment options and subsequent material recovery technologies.Particularly,we introduce several global leading recyclers to illustrate their industrial processes and technical intricacies.Furthermore,relevant challenges and evolving trends are investigated in pursuit of a sustainable end-of-life management and disposal framework.We hope that this study can serve as a valuable resource for researchers,industry professionals and policymakers in this field,ultimately facilitating the adoption of proper disposal practices.

Catalytic effect in lithium metal batteries: From heterogeneous catalyst to homogenous catalyst

Lithium metal batteries are regarded as prominent contenders to address the pressing needs owing to the high theoretical capacity.Toward the broader implementation,the primary obstacle lies in the intricate multi-electron,multi-step redox reaction associated with sluggish conversion kinetics,subsequently giving rise to a cascade of parasitic issues.In order to smooth reaction kinetics,catalysts are widely introduced to accelerate reaction rate via modulating the energy barrier.Over past decades,a large amount of research has been devoted to the catalyst design and catalytic mechanism exploration,and thus the great progress in electrochemical performance has been realized.Therefore,it is necessary to make a comprehensive review toward key progress in catalyst design and future development pathway.In this review,the basic mechanism of lithium metal batteries is provided along with corresponding advantages and existing challenges detailly described.The main catalysts employed to accelerate cathode reaction with emphasis on their catalytic mechanism are summarized as well.Finally,the rational design and innovative direction toward efficient catalysts are suggested for future application in metal-sulfur/gas battery and beyond.This review is expected to drive and benefit future research on rational catalyst design with multi-parameter synergistic impacts on the activity and stability of next-generation metal battery,thus opening new avenue for sustainable solution to climate change,energy and environmental issues,and the potential industrial economy.

Indolocarbazole-Based Small Molecule Cathode-Active Material Exhibiting Double Redox for High-Voltage Li-Organic Batteries

Most organic electrode materials(OEMs)for rechargeable batteries employ n-type redox centers,whose redox potentials are intrinsically limited<3.0 V versus Li^(+)/Li.However,p-type materials possessing high redox potentials experience low specific capacities because they are capable of only a single redox reaction within the stable electrochemical window of typical electrolytes.Herein,we report 5,11-diethyl-5,11-dihydroindolo[3,2-b]carbazole(DEICZ)as a novel p-type OEM,exhibiting stable plateaus at high discharge potentials of 3.44 and 4.09 V versus Li^(+)/Li.Notably,the second redox potential of DEICZ is within the stable electrochemical window.The mechanism of the double redox reaction is investigated using both theoretical calculations and experimental measurements,including density functional theory calculations,ex situ electron spin resonance,and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.Finally,hybridization with single-walled carbon nanotubes(SWCNT)improves the cycle stability and rate performance of DEICZ owing to theπ-πinteractions between the SWCNT and co-planar molecular structure of DEICZ,preventing the dissolution of active materials into the electrolyte.The DEICZ/SWCNT composite electrode maintains 70.4%of its initial specific capacity at 1-C rate and also exhibits high-rate capability,even performing well at 100-C rate.Furthermore,we demonstrate its potential for flexible batteries after applying 1000 bending stresses to the composite electrode.

Recent Advances in Aqueous Zn||MnO_(2)Batteries

Recently,rechargeable aqueous zinc-based batteries using manganese oxide as the cathode(e.g.,MnO_(2))have gained attention due to their inherent safety,environmental friendliness,and low cost.Despite their potential,achieving high energy density in Zn||MnO_(2)batteries remains challenging,highlighting the need to understand the electrochemical reaction mechanisms underlying these batteries more deeply and optimize battery components,including electrodes and electrolytes.This review comprehensively summarizes the latest advancements for understanding the electrochemistry reaction mechanisms and designing electrodes and electrolytes for Zn||MnO_(2)batteries in mildly and strongly acidic environments.Furthermore,we highlight the key challenges hindering the extensive application of Zn||MnO_(2)batteries,including high-voltage requirements and areal capacity,and propose innovative solutions to overcome these challenges.We suggest that MnO_(2)/Mn^(2+)conversion in neutral electrolytes is a crucial aspect that needs to be addressed to achieve high-performance Zn||MnO_(2)batteries.These approaches could lead to breakthroughs in the future development of Zn||MnO_(2)batteries,off ering a more sustainable,costeff ective,and high-performance alternative to traditional batteries.

Inherent thermal-responsive strategies for safe lithium batteries

Safe batteries are the basis for next-generation application scenarios such as portable energy storage devices and electric vehicles,which are crucial to achieving carbon neutralization.Electrolytes,separators,and electrodes as main components of lithium batteries strongly affect the occurrence of safety accidents.Responsive materials,which can respond to external stimuli or environmental change,have triggered extensive attentions recently,holding great promise in facilitating safe and smart batteries.This review thoroughly discusses recent advances regarding the construction of high-safety lithium batteries based on internal thermal-responsive strategies,together with the corresponding changes in electrochemical performance under external stimulus.Furthermore,the existing challenges and outlook for the design of safe batteries are presented,creating valuable insights and proposing directions for the practical implementation of safe lithium batteries.

Progress,challenges,and prospects of spent lithium-ion batteries recycling:A review

The recycling and reutilization of spent lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)have become an important measure to alleviate problems like resource scarcity and environmental pollution.Although some progress has been made,battery recycling technology still faces challenges in terms of efficiency,effectiveness and environmental sustainability.This review aims to systematically review and analyze the current status of spent LIB recycling,and conduct a detailed comparison and evaluation of different recycling processes.In addition,this review introduces emerging recycling techniques,including deep eutectic solvents,molten salt roasting,and direct regeneration,with the intent of enhancing recycling efficiency and diminishing environmental repercussions.Furthermore,to increase the added value of recycled materials,this review proposes the concept of upgrading recycled materials into high value-added functional materials,such as catalysts,adsorbents,and graphene.Through life cycle assessment,the paper also explores the economic and environmental impacts of current battery recycling and highlights the importance that future recycling technologies should achieve a balance between recycling efficiency,economics and environmental benefits.Finally,this review outlines the opportunities and challenges of recycling key materials for next-generation batteries,and proposes relevant policy recommendations to promote the green and sustainable development of batteries,circular economy,and ecological civilization.

Design Principles and Mechanistic Understandings of Non-Noble-Metal Bifunctional Electrocatalysts for Zinc-Air Batteries

Zinc-air batteries(ZABs)are promising energy storage systems because of high theoretical energy density,safety,low cost,and abundance of zinc.However,the slow multi-step reaction of oxygen and heavy reliance on noble-metal catalysts hinder the practical applications of ZABs.Therefore,feasible and advanced non-noble-metal elec-trocatalysts for air cathodes need to be identified to promote the oxygen catalytic reaction.In this review,we initially introduced the advancement of ZABs in the past two decades and provided an overview of key developments in this field.Then,we discussed the work-ing mechanism and the design of bifunctional electrocatalysts from the perspective of morphology design,crystal structure tuning,interface strategy,and atomic engineering.We also included theoretical studies,machine learning,and advanced characterization technologies to provide a comprehensive understanding of the structure-performance relationship of electrocatalysts and the reaction pathways of the oxygen redox reactions.Finally,we discussed the challenges and prospects related to designing advanced non-noble-metal bifunctional electrocatalysts for ZABs.

From Liquid to Solid‑State Lithium Metal Batteries:Fundamental Issues and Recent Developments

The widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries has been driven by the proliferation of portable electronic devices and electric vehicles,which have increasingly stringent energy density requirements.Lithium metal batteries(LMBs),with their ultralow reduction potential and high theoretical capacity,are widely regarded as the most promising technical pathway for achieving high energy density batteries.In this review,we provide a comprehensive overview of fundamental issues related to high reactivity and migrated interfaces in LMBs.Furthermore,we propose improved strategies involving interface engineering,3D current collector design,electrolyte optimization,separator modification,application of alloyed anodes,and external field regulation to address these challenges.The utilization of solid-state electrolytes can significantly enhance the safety of LMBs and represents the only viable approach for advancing them.This review also encompasses the variation in fundamental issues and design strategies for the transition from liquid to solid electrolytes.Particularly noteworthy is that the introduction of SSEs will exacerbate differences in electrochemical and mechanical properties at the interface,leading to increased interface inhomogeneity—a critical factor contributing to failure in all-solidstate lithium metal batteries.Based on recent research works,this perspective highlights the current status of research on developing high-performance LMBs.

Engineering Strategies for Suppressing the Shuttle Effect in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

Lithium–sulfur(Li–S)batteries are supposed to be one of the most potential next-generation batteries owing to their high theoretical capacity and low cost.Nevertheless,the shuttle effect of firm multi-step two-electron reaction between sulfur and lithium in liquid electrolyte makes the capacity much smaller than the theoretical value.Many methods were proposed for inhibiting the shuttle effect of polysulfide,improving corresponding redox kinetics and enhancing the integral performance of Li–S batteries.Here,we will comprehensively and systematically summarize the strategies for inhibiting the shuttle effect from all components of Li–S batteries.First,the electrochemical principles/mechanism and origin of the shuttle effect are described in detail.Moreover,the efficient strategies,including boosting the sulfur conversion rate of sulfur,confining sulfur or lithium polysulfides(LPS)within cathode host,confining LPS in the shield layer,and preventing LPS from contacting the anode,will be discussed to suppress the shuttle effect.Then,recent advances in inhibition of shuttle effect in cathode,electrolyte,separator,and anode with the aforementioned strategies have been summarized to direct the further design of efficient materials for Li–S batteries.Finally,we present prospects for inhibition of the LPS shuttle and potential development directions in Li–S batteries.

Assessment of Wet Season Precipitation in the Central United States by the Regional Climate Simulation of the WRFG Member in NARCCAP and Its Relationship with Large-Scale Circulation Biases

Assessment of past-climate simulations of regional climate models(RCMs)is important for understanding the reliability of RCMs when used to project future regional climate.Here,we assess the performance and discuss possible causes of biases in a WRF-based RCM with a grid spacing of 50 km,named WRFG,from the North American Regional Climate Change Assessment Program(NARCCAP)in simulating wet season precipitation over the Central United States for a period when observational data are available.The RCM reproduces key features of the precipitation distribution characteristics during late spring to early summer,although it tends to underestimate the magnitude of precipitation.This dry bias is partially due to the model’s lack of skill in simulating nocturnal precipitation related to the lack of eastward propagating convective systems in the simulation.Inaccuracy in reproducing large-scale circulation and environmental conditions is another contributing factor.The too weak simulated pressure gradient between the Rocky Mountains and the Gulf of Mexico results in weaker southerly winds in between,leading to a reduction of warm moist air transport from the Gulf to the Central Great Plains.The simulated low-level horizontal convergence fields are less favorable for upward motion than in the NARR and hence,for the development of moist convection as well.Therefore,a careful examination of an RCM’s deficiencies and the identification of the source of errors are important when using the RCM to project precipitation changes in future climate scenarios.

Progress on Transition Metal Ions Dissolution Suppression Strategies in Prussian Blue Analogs for Aqueous Sodium-/Potassium-Ion Batteries

Aqueous sodium-ion batteries(ASIBs)and aqueous potassium-ion batteries(APIBs)present significant potential for large-scale energy storage due to their cost-effectiveness,safety,and environmental compatibility.Nonetheless,the intricate energy storage mechanisms in aqueous electrolytes place stringent require-ments on the host materials.Prussian blue analogs(PBAs),with their open three-dimensional framework and facile synthesis,stand out as leading candidates for aqueous energy storage.However,PBAs possess a swift capacity fade and limited cycle longevity,for their structural integrity is compromised by the pronounced dis-solution of transition metal(TM)ions in the aqueous milieu.This manuscript provides an exhaustive review of the recent advancements concerning PBAs in ASIBs and APIBs.The dissolution mechanisms of TM ions in PBAs,informed by their structural attributes and redox processes,are thoroughly examined.Moreover,this study delves into innovative design tactics to alleviate the dissolution issue of TM ions.In conclusion,the paper consolidates various strategies for suppressing the dissolution of TM ions in PBAs and posits avenues for prospective exploration of high-safety aqueous sodium-/potassium-ion batteries.

Advances in All-Solid-State Lithium-Sulfur Batteries for Commercialization

Solid-state batteries are commonly acknowledged as the forthcoming evolution in energy storage technologies.Recent development progress for these rechargeable batteries has notably accelerated their trajectory toward achieving commercial feasibility.In particular,all-solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries(ASSLSBs)that rely on lithium-sulfur reversible redox processes exhibit immense potential as an energy storage system,surpassing conventional lithium-ion batteries.This can be attributed predominantly to their exceptional energy density,extended operational lifespan,and heightened safety attributes.Despite these advantages,the adoption of ASSLSBs in the commercial sector has been sluggish.To expedite research and development in this particular area,this article provides a thorough review of the current state of ASSLSBs.We delve into an in-depth analysis of the rationale behind transitioning to ASSLSBs,explore the fundamental scientific principles involved,and provide a comprehensive evaluation of the main challenges faced by ASSLSBs.We suggest that future research in this field should prioritize plummeting the presence of inactive substances,adopting electrodes with optimum performance,minimizing interfacial resistance,and designing a scalable fabrication approach to facilitate the commercialization of ASSLSBs.

A Review of Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries:Recent Progress and Future Perspectives

Zinc-air batteries(ZABs)are gaining attention as an ideal option for various applications requiring high-capacity batteries,such as portable electronics,electric vehicles,and renewable energy storage.ZABs offer advantages such as low environmental impact,enhanced safety compared to Li-ion batteries,and cost-effectiveness due to the abundance of zinc.However,early research faced challenges due to parasitic reactions at the zinc anode and slow oxygen redox kinetics.Recent advancements in restructuring the anode,utilizing alternative electrolytes,and developing bifunctional oxygen catalysts have significantly improved ZABs.Scientists have achieved battery reversibility over thousands of cycles,introduced new electrolytes,and achieved energy efficiency records surpassing 70%.Despite these achievements,there are challenges related to lower power density,shorter lifespan,and air electrode corrosion leading to performance degradation.This review paper discusses different battery configurations,and reaction mechanisms for electrically and mechanically rechargeable ZABs,and proposes remedies to enhance overall battery performance.The paper also explores recent advancements,applications,and the future prospects of electrically/mechanically rechargeable ZABs.

Highly Efficient Aligned Ion‑Conducting Network and Interface Chemistries for Depolarized All‑Solid‑State Lithium Metal Batteries

Improving the long-term cycling stability and energy density of all-solid-state lithium(Li)-metal batteries(ASSLMBs)at room temperature is a severe challenge because of the notorious solid–solid interfacial contact loss and sluggish ion transport.Solid electrolytes are generally studied as two-dimensional(2D)structures with planar interfaces,showing limited interfacial contact and further resulting in unstable Li/electrolyte and cathode/electrolyte interfaces.Herein,three-dimensional(3D)architecturally designed composite solid electrolytes are developed with independently controlled structural factors using 3D printing processing and post-curing treatment.Multiple-type electrolyte films with vertical-aligned micro-pillar(p-3DSE)and spiral(s-3DSE)structures are rationally designed and developed,which can be employed for both Li metal anode and cathode in terms of accelerating the Li+transport within electrodes and reinforcing the interfacial adhesion.The printed p-3DSE delivers robust long-term cycle life of up to 2600 cycles and a high critical current density of 1.92 mA cm^(−2).The optimized electrolyte structure could lead to ASSLMBs with a superior full-cell areal capacity of 2.75 mAh cm^(−2)(LFP)and 3.92 mAh cm^(−2)(NCM811).This unique design provides enhancements for both anode and cathode electrodes,thereby alleviating interfacial degradation induced by dendrite growth and contact loss.The approach in this study opens a new design strategy for advanced composite solid polymer electrolytes in ASSLMBs operating under high rates/capacities and room temperature.

Macroporous Directed and Interconnected Carbon Architectures Endow Amorphous Silicon Nanodots as Low‑Strain and Fast‑Charging Anode for Lithium‑Ion Batteries

Fabricating low-strain and fast-charging silicon-carbon composite anodes is highly desired but remains a huge challenge for lithium-ion batteries.Herein,we report a unique silicon-carbon composite fabricated by uniformly dis-persing amorphous Si nanodots(SiNDs)in carbon nanospheres(SiNDs/C)that are welded on the wall of the macroporous carbon framework(MPCF)by vertical graphene(VG),labeled as MPCF@VG@SiNDs/C.The high dispersity and amor-phous features of ultrasmall SiNDs(~0.7 nm),the flexible and directed electron/Li+transport channels of VG,and the MPCF impart the MPCF@VG@SiNDs/C more lithium storage sites,rapid Li+transport path,and unique low-strain property during Li+storage.Consequently,the MPCF@VG@SiNDs/C exhibits high cycle stability(1301.4 mAh g^(-1) at 1 A g^(-1) after 1000 cycles without apparent decay)and high rate capacity(910.3 mAh g^(-1),20 A g^(-1))in half cells based on industrial electrode standards.The assembled pouch full cell delivers a high energy density(1694.0 Wh L^(-1);602.8 Wh kg^(-1))and an excellent fast-charging capability(498.5 Wh kg^(-1),charging for 16.8 min at 3 C).This study opens new possibilities for preparing advanced silicon-carbon com-posite anodes for practical applications.

Heterointerface Engineering-Induced Oxygen Defects for the Manganese Dissolution Inhibition in Aqueous Zinc Ion Batteries

Manganese-based material is a prospective cathode material for aqueous zinc ion batteries(ZIBs)by virtue of its high theoretical capacity,high operating voltage,and low price.However,the manganese dissolution during the electrochemical reaction causes its electrochemical cycling stability to be undesirable.In this work,heterointerface engineering-induced oxygen defects are introduced into heterostructure MnO_(2)(δa-MnO_(2))by in situ electrochemical activation to inhibit manganese dissolution for aqueous zinc ion batteries.Meanwhile,the heterointerface between the disordered amorphous and the crystalline MnO_(2)ofδa-MnO_(2)is decisive for the formation of oxygen defects.And the experimental results indicate that the manganese dissolution ofδa-MnO_(2)is considerably inhibited during the charge/discharge cycle.Theoretical analysis indicates that the oxygen defect regulates the electronic and band structure and the Mn-O bonding state of the electrode material,thereby promoting electron transport kinetics as well as inhibiting Mn dissolution.Consequently,the capacity ofδa-MnO_(2)does not degrade after 100 cycles at a current density of 0.5 Ag^(-1)and also 91%capacity retention after 500cycles at 1 Ag^(-1).This study provides a promising insight into the development of high-performance manganese-based cathode materials through a facile and low-cost strategy.

How Does Stacking Pressure Affect the Performance of Solid Electrolytes and All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries?

All-solid-state lithium metal batteries(ASSLMBs)with solid electrolytes(SEs)have emerged as a promising alternative to liquid electrolyte-based Li-ion batteries due to their higher energy density and safety.However,since ASSLMBs lack the wetting properties of liquid electrolytes,they require stacking pressure to prevent contact loss between electrodes and SEs.Though previous studies showed that stacking pressure could impact certain performance aspects,a comprehensive investigation into the effects of stacking pressure has not been conducted.To address this gap,we utilized the Li_(6)PS_(5)Cl solid electrolyte as a reference and investigated the effects of stacking pressures on the performance of SEs and ASSLMBs.We also developed models to explain the underlying origin of these effects and predict battery performance,such as ionic conductivity and critical current density.Our results demonstrated that an appropriate stacking pressure is necessary to achieve optimal performance,and each step of applying pressure requires a specific pressure value.These findings can help explain discrepancies in the literature and provide guidance to establish standardized testing conditions and reporting benchmarks for ASSLMBs.Overall,this study contributes to the understanding of the impact of stacking pressure on the performance of ASSLMBs and highlights the importance of careful pressure optimization for optimal battery performance.