Gleaning insights from German energy transition and large-scale underground energy storage for China’s carbon neutrality

The global energy transition is a widespread phenomenon that requires international exchange of experiences and mutual learning.Germany’s success in its first phase of energy transition can be attributed to its adoption of smart energy technology and implementation of electricity futures and spot marketization,which enabled the achievement of multiple energy spatial–temporal complementarities and overall grid balance through energy conversion and reconversion technologies.While China can draw from Germany’s experience to inform its own energy transition efforts,its 11-fold higher annual electricity consumption requires a distinct approach.We recommend a clean energy system based on smart sector coupling(ENSYSCO)as a suitable pathway for achieving sustainable energy in China,given that renewable energy is expected to guarantee 85%of China’s energy production by 2060,requiring significant future electricity storage capacity.Nonetheless,renewable energy storage remains a significant challenge.We propose four large-scale underground energy storage methods based on ENSYSCO to address this challenge,while considering China’s national conditions.These proposals have culminated in pilot projects for large-scale underground energy storage in China,which we believe is a necessary choice for achieving carbon neutrality in China and enabling efficient and safe grid integration of renewable energy within the framework of ENSYSCO.

Battery Technologies for Grid-Level Large-Scale Electrical Energy Storage

Grid-level large-scale electrical energy storage(GLEES) is an essential approach for balancing the supply–demand of electricity generation, distribution, and usage. Compared with conventional energy storage methods, battery technologies are desirable energy storage devices for GLEES due to their easy modularization, rapid response, flexible installation, and short construction cycles. In general, battery energy storage technologies are expected to meet the requirements of GLEES such as peak shaving and load leveling, voltage and frequency regulation, and emergency response, which are highlighted in this perspective. Furthermore, several types of battery technologies, including lead–acid, nickel–cadmium, nickel–metal hydride, sodium–sulfur, lithium-ion, and flow batteries, are discussed in detail for the application of GLEES. Moreover, some possible developing directions to facilitate efforts in this area are presented to establish a perspective on battery technology, provide a road map for guiding future studies, and promote the commercial application of batteries for GLEES.

Application research on large-scale battery energy storage system under Global Energy Interconnection framework

In the context of constructing Global Energy Interconnection(GEI), energy storage technology, as one of the important basic supporting technologies in power system, will play an important role in the energy configuration and optimization. Based on the most promising battery energy storage technology, this paper introduces the current status of the grid technology, the application of large-scale energy storage technology and the supporting role of battery energy storage for GEI. Based on several key technologies of large-scale battery energy storage system, preliminary analysis of the standard system construction of energy storage system is made, and the future prospect is put forward.

A Novel Stackelberg-Game-Based Energy Storage Sharing Scheme Under Demand Charge

Demand response(DR)using shared energy storage systems(ESSs)is an appealing method to save electricity bills for users under demand charge and time-of-use(TOU)price.A novel Stackelberg-game-based ESS sharing scheme is proposed and analyzed in this study.In this scheme,the interactions between selfish users and an operator are characterized as a Stackelberg game.Operator holds a large-scale ESS that is shared among users in the form of energy transactions.It sells energy to users and sets the selling price first.It maximizes its profit through optimal pricing and ESS dispatching.Users purchase some energy from operator for the reduction of their demand charges after operator's selling price is announced.This game-theoretic ESS sharing scheme is characterized and analyzed by formulating and solving a bi-level optimization model.The upper-level optimization maximizes operator's profit and the lower-level optimization minimizes users'costs.The bi-level model is transformed and linearized into a mixed-integer linear programming(MILP)model using the mathematical programming with equilibrium constraints(MPEC)method and model linearizing techniques.Case studies with actual data are carried out to explore the economic performances of the proposed ESS sharing scheme.

An Integrated Framework for Geothermal Energy Storage with CO_(2)Sequestration and Utilization

Subsurface geothermal energy storage has greater potential than other energy storage strategies in terms of capacity scale and time duration.Carbon dioxide(CO_(2))is regarded as a potential medium for energy storage due to its superior thermal properties.Moreover,the use of CO_(2)plumes for geothermal energy storage mitigates the greenhouse effect by storing CO_(2)in geological bodies.In this work,an integrated framework is proposed for synergistic geothermal energy storage and CO_(2)sequestration and utilization.Within this framework,CO_(2)is first injected into geothermal layers for energy accumulation.The resultant high-energy CO_(2)is then introduced into a target oil reservoir for CO_(2)utilization and geothermal energy storage.As a result,CO_(2)is sequestrated in the geological oil reservoir body.The results show that,as high-energy CO_(2)is injected,the average temperature of the whole target reservoir is greatly increased.With the assistance of geothermal energy,the geological utilization efficiency of CO_(2)is higher,resulting in a 10.1%increase in oil displacement efficiency.According to a storage-potential assessment of the simulated CO_(2)site,110 years after the CO_(2)injection,the utilization efficiency of the geological body will be as high as 91.2%,and the final injection quantity of the CO_(2)in the site will be as high as 9.529×10^(8)t.After 1000 years sequestration,the supercritical phase dominates in CO_(2)sequestration,followed by the liquid phase and then the mineralized phase.In addition,CO_(2)sequestration accounting for dissolution trapping increases significantly due to the presence of residual oil.More importantly,CO_(2)exhibits excellent performance in storing geothermal energy on a large scale;for example,the total energy stored in the studied geological body can provide the yearly energy supply for over 3.5×10^(7) normal households.Application of this integrated approach holds great significance for large-scale geothermal energy storage and the achievement of carbon neutrality.

An overview of application-oriented multifunctional large-scale stationary battery and hydrogen hybrid energy storage system

The imperative to address traditional energy crises and environmental concerns has accelerated the need for energy structure transformation.However,the variable nature of renewable energy poses challenges in meeting complex practical energy requirements.To address this issue,the construction of a multifunctional large-scale stationary energy storage system is considered an effective solution.This paper critically examines the battery and hydrogen hybrid energy storage systems.Both technologies face limitations hindering them from fully meeting future energy storage needs,such as large storage capacity in limited space,frequent storage with rapid response,and continuous storage without loss.Batteries,with their rapid response(<1 s)and high efficiency(>90%),excel in frequent short-duration energy storage.However,limitations such as a self-discharge rate(>1%)and capacity loss(~20%)restrict their use for long-duration energy storage.Hydrogen,as a potential energy carrier,is suitable for large-scale,long-duration energy storage due to its high energy density,steady state,and low loss.Nevertheless,it is less efficient for frequent energy storage due to its low storage efficiency(~50%).Ongoing research suggests that a battery and hydrogen hybrid energy storage system could combine the strengths of both technologies to meet the growing demand for large-scale,long-duration energy storage.To assess their applied potentials,this paper provides a detailed analysis of the research status of both energy storage technologies using proposed key performance indices.Additionally,application-oriented future directions and challenges of the battery and hydrogen hybrid energy storage system are outlined from multiple perspectives,offering guidance for the development of advanced energy storage systems.

Sizing of Energy Storage Systems for Output Smoothing of Renewable Energy Systems

光伏、风力发电等可再生能源（renewable energysources，RESs）具有随机性、间歇性等特点。为了抑制RESs输出波动对电网的不利影响，提出了用于平滑RESs发电系统功率输出的储能系统（energy storage system，ESS）容量优化确定方法。利用离散傅里叶变换（discrete Fouriertransform，DFT）对RESs输出功率进行频谱分析，基于频谱分析结果，考虑ESS充放电效率、荷电状态（stateofcharge，soc）及RESs发电系统目标功率输出波动率的约束，确定所需ESS最小容量。采用美国华盛顿州实际观测风速数据及日本东北电力公司风电场接入电网20rnin有功功率波动规范（最大波动率为10％），在一风力发电系统中对该方法进行了验证。算例结果表明采用该方法能够以较小的容量将风机输出最大波动率由61．7％降到9．9％。

Comparative techno-economic analysis of large-scale renewable energy storage technologies

Energy storage is an effective way to address the instability of renewable energy generation modes,such as wind and solar,which are projected to play an important role in the sustainable and low-carbon society.Economics and carbon emissions are important indicators that should be thoroughly considered for evaluating the feasibility of energy storage technologies(ESTs).In this study,we study two promising routes for large-scale renewable energy storage,electrochemical energy storage(EES)and hydrogen energy storage(HES),via technical analysis of the ESTs.The levelized cost of storage(LCOS),carbon emissions and uncertainty assessments for EESs and HESs over the life cycle are conducted with full consideration of the critical links for these routes.In order to reduce the evaluation error,we use the Monte Carlo method to derive a large number of data for estimating the economy and carbon emission level of ESTs based on the collected data.The results show that lithium ion(Li-ion)batteries show the lowest LCOS and carbon emissions,at 0.314 US$kWh-1 and 72.76 g CO_(2) e kWh^(-1),compared with other batteries for EES.Different HES routes,meaning different combinations of hydrogen production,delivery and refueling methods,show substantial differences in economics,and the lowest LCOS and carbon emissions,at 0.227 US$kWh^(-1) and 61.63 gCO_(2) e kWh^(-1),are achieved using HES routes that involve hydrogen production by alkaline electrolyzer(AE),delivery by hydrogen pipeline and corresponding refueling.The findings of this study suggest that HES and EES have comparable levels of economics and carbon emissions that should be both considered for large-scale renewable energy storage to achieve future decarbonization goals.

Contingency Reserve Evaluation for Fast Frequency Response of Multiple Battery Energy Storage Systems in a Large-scale Power Grid

Recently,the fast frequency response(FFR)service by large-scale battery energy storage systems(BESSs)has been successfully proved to arrest the frequency excursion during an unexpected power outage.However,adequate frequency response relies on proper evaluation of the contingency reserve of BESSs.The BESS FFR reserve is commonly managed under fixed contracts,ignoring various response characteristics of different BESSs and their coexisting interactions.This paper proposes a new methodology based on dynamic grid response and various BESS response characteristics to optimise the FFR reserves and prevent the frequency from breaching the under-frequency load shedding(UFLS)thresholds.The superiority of the proposed method is demonstrated to manage three large-scale BESSs operating simultaneously in an Australian power grid under high renewable penetration scenarios.Further,the proposed method can identify remaining battery power and energy reserve to be safely utilised for other grid services(e.g.,energy arbitrage).The results can provide valuable insights for integrating FFR into conventional ancillary services and techno-effective management of multiple BESSs.

MMC结构的分布式光伏系统功率不平衡优化方案

模块化多电平变换器(modular multilevel converter,MMC)由于其模块化结构,已成为大规模光伏(photovoltaic,PV)并网逆变器的研究热点。然而,在不同光照强度和温度下,PV组件之间发电功率不同,导致MMC内部出现桥臂、相间功率不均衡。因此,该文先分析MMC-PV系统在功率不均衡下的表现机理,后提出一种基于MMC结构的光储电能路由,其控制策略在满足交、直流端口功率需求的同时,实现桥臂间和相间的功率自均衡,提高PV利用率和系统稳定性。同时,受桥臂内子模块功率传输极限的影响,对PV和ESS的配置约束作详细分析,最后,通过仿真以及实验验证所提拓扑及控制策略的正确性和有效性。

基于直流母线电压信号的小型独立直流微电网自主平滑模式切换控制策略

在独立直流微电网中,储能系统(ESSs)和光伏(PV)是主要能源。在极端条件下,储能和光伏变换器需要进行工作模式切换以协调功率,为了优化切换性能,该文提出一种基于直流总线信号(DBS)的自主平滑模式切换控制策略,用于多个光伏电源和ESS的无通信协同工作,提高了系统的可靠性。针对多模式切换过程中的抖振和死锁问题,所提出的控制策略利用具有反馈抑制机制的PI控制器实现了在饱和与激活之间无缝切换。同时,为了进一步提升光伏能量的利用率,所提出的控制策略充分考虑了ESS的荷电状态(SOC),并使光伏电源能够直接参与直流母线电压的调节。此外,还对模式切换时间与控制器参数的设计进行了详细的分析建模,以优化模式切换性能。最后,建立了一个小型独立直流微电网实验系统,以验证所提出的直流微电网控制方法的可行性。

基于MPC的光-储协同调频优化策略

[目的]为了降低光伏发电给电网带来的频率扰动,并进一步提升调频效果,提出了一种基于MPC(Model Predictive Control)的光-储协同调频优化策略,分析了该策略的基本原理、控制流程、约束条件、目标函数并优化了权重系数。[方法]构建了一个基于MPC的光-储并网系统模型,并根据该模型推导出了非线性状态空间方程。为了验证该策略的调频效果,设置了4种不同的仿真环境:无储能、带电池储能、带混合储能以及文章提出的策略。[结果]仿真结果表明:与其他场景相比,所提出的策略在调频效果上是最优的,无储能的条件下调频效果是最差的,此外,采用混合储能的调频方法优于使用电池储能的方法。[结论]在MATLLAB/Simulink平台上验证了所提策略的有效性。在光伏发电系统中,对储能和光伏最大功率点跟踪进行优化控制,能使电网频率更加稳定,从而提高整个系统的稳定性。该研究成果可为光伏发电并网提供参考依据。

交直流配电系统储能优化配置方法

为提高配电网对可再生能源的消纳能力并减轻可再生能源并网对配电网造成的影响,针对交直流混合配电系统,提出了一种考虑电压源型换流器和储能系统协调运行的储能容量双层优化模型,结合遗传算法与二阶锥规划方法对大规模非线性规划问题进行求解。最后,通过设置3种不同场景以验证模型的合理性和有效性。算例结果表明:储能系统和交直流混合配电系统协调运行能够有效抑制电压波动,提高储能系统的收益。

面向新型配电系统灵活性提升的智能软开关与储能系统协调规划

随着分布式电源(DG)渗透率的不断提高,配电网的不确定性加剧,迫切需要引入灵活性资源进行调节。储能系统(ESS)和智能软开关(SOP)的联合引入,不仅可以提供空间尺度的潮流分布能力,而且可以从时间尺度进一步解决能量供需的不平衡问题。为此,综合考虑ESS和SOP的灵活特性,从灵活性供需匹配和传输通道两个方面建立灵活性评估指标,提出一种面向新型配电系统灵活性提升的ESS和SOP三层协调规划模型。其中,上层以ESS等年值投资费用最小化为目标进行ESS规划,中层以配电网年综合运行成本最小化为目标进行SOP规划,下层以日平均灵活性水平最高为目标进行运行优化。采用双向优化方法生成典型运行场景处理DG的不确定性,利用混合优化算法对三层模型进行求解。算例分析验证了SOP和ESS协调规划模型的合理性和有效性。

柴储微电网虚拟惯量和阻尼系数可行域分析方法

采用虚拟同步发电机(virtual synchronous generator,VSG)技术的储能系统能够有效提升高比例新能源接入的独立柴储微电网的惯量及频率稳定性。首先推导基于VSG的柴储微电网简化频率分析模型;在此基础上,提出一种储能VSG虚拟惯量与阻尼系数的可行域分析和设计方法。该方法计及VSG最大输出功率与能量约束,保证系统满足频率最低点等基本频率稳定指标约束,并有针对性地考虑阻尼比或VSG等效功率平滑时间等定制化动态性能需求。此外,针对柴储微电网在扰动初期出现的功率振荡现象,建立计及线路阻抗的稳定性机理分析模型,并提出基于虚拟阻抗的振荡抑制策略。最后,搭建了1台50kV·A柴油发电机和1台50kV·A虚拟同步机构成的仿真和实验平台,验证所提方法的有效性。

基于模糊Petri网的“网–源–储–车”动态阈值能量管理策略研究

轨道交通作为电力系统的主要用能对象之一,每年消耗大量电能用于电力机车牵引。因此,降低牵引能耗、提升供能系统的弹性与效能对促进碳达峰、碳中和具有重要的现实意义。轨道交通“网–源–储–车”协同供能系统在传统牵引供电架构的基础上引入了储能系统与新能源发电系统,然而,如何实现牵引负荷、储能系统及新能源发电系统的高效能源自洽,减少双向波动性与不确定性对能量管理系统的影响成为了新的难题。为实现以上目标,减轻牵引负荷对牵引网的功率冲击,延长储能系统的使用寿命,本文提出了一种基于模糊Petri网(fuzzy Petri nets,FPN)的“网–源–储–车”动态阈值能量管理策略。该策略在“网–源–储–车”基本功率分配框架的基础上,设定了多工况下牵引供电系统与储能系统、新能源发电系统的动态能量交互规则,可适用于不同架构的“网–源–储–车”协同供能体系;在此基础上,以电力机车功率与储能系统寿命作为模糊Petri网的输入参数,经过模糊化、Petri网推理、反模糊化等操作后实现对放电阈值的自适应动态调整。本文以某牵引变电所实测数据作为测试案例,仿真结果表明:相较于基于固定阈值的能量管理策略,基于模糊Petri网的动态阈值管理策略能够有效提升能量回馈效率与再生制动能量储存效率,同时,增加光伏发电系统的利用电度,降低电力机车经由接触网从电力系统取能的平均功率及储能系统的平均放电深度;对延长储能系统的预计寿命、提升协同供能系统的能量利用效率与运行经济性具有积极意义。

Development of High Areal Capacity Electrolytic MnO_(2)-Zn Battery via an Iodine Mediator

The commercialization of electrolytic MnO_(2)-Zn batteries is highly applauded owing to the advantages of cost-effectiveness,high safety,high energy density,and durable working performance.However,due to the low reversibility of the cathode MnO_(2)/Mn^(2+)chemistry at high areal capacities and the severe Zn anode corrosion,the practical application of MnO_(2)-Zn batteries is hampered by inadequate lifespan.Leveraging the full advantage of an iodine redox mediator,here we design a highly rechargeable electrolytic MnO_(2)-Zn battery with a high areal capacity.The MnO_(2)-Zn battery coupled with an iodine mediator in a mild electrolyte shows a high discharge voltage of 1.85 V and a robust areal capacity of 10 mAh cm^(-2)under a substantial discharge current density of 160 mA cm^(-2).The MnO_(2)/I_(2)-Zn battery with an areal capacity of 10 mAh cm^(-2)exhibits prolonged stability of over 950 cycles under a high-capacity retention of~94%.The scaled-up MnO_(2)/I_(2)-Zn battery reveals a stable cycle life under a cell capacity of~600 mAh.Moreover,our constructed MnO_(2)/I_(2)-Zn battery demonstrates a practical energy density of~37 Wh kg^(-1)and a competitive energy cost of<18 US$kWh^(-1)by taking into account the cathode,anode,and electrolyte.The MnO_(2)/I_(2)-Zn battery,with its remarkable reversibility and reasonable energy density,enlightens a new arena of large-scale energy storage devices.

2D Materials Boost Advanced Zn Anodes:Principles,Advances,and Challenges

Aqueous zinc-ion battery(ZIB)featuring with high safety,low cost,environmentally friendly,and high energy density is one of the most promising systems for large-scale energy storage application.Despite extensive research progress made in developing high-performance cathodes,the Zn anode issues,such as Zn dendrites,corrosion,and hydrogen evolution,have been observed to shorten ZIB’s lifespan seriously,thus restricting their practical application.Engineering advanced Zn anodes based on two-dimensional(2D)materials are widely investigated to address these issues.With atomic thickness,2D materials possess ultrahigh specific surface area,much exposed active sites,superior mechanical strength and flexibility,and unique electrical properties,which confirm to be a promising alternative anode material for ZIBs.This review aims to boost rational design strategies of 2D materials for practical application of ZIB by combining the fundamental principle and research progress.Firstly,the fundamental principles of 2D materials against the drawbacks of Zn anode are introduced.Then,the designed strategies of several typical 2D materials for stable Zn anodes are comprehensively summarized.Finally,perspectives on the future development of advanced Zn anodes by taking advantage of these unique properties of 2D materials are proposed.

规模化储能参与电力现货市场的商业模式

以规模化储能为研究对象,在电力市场放开背景下,开展其参与电力现货市场的商业模式研究.首先,从国内外典型市场出清机制出发,分析日前市场及实时市场的出清方式、出清计算等过程,提出适应规模化储能参与现货市场的联合出清机制,包括投标方式、计费方式和出清方式等.其次,为充分发掘规模化储能的市场价值与其他附加价值,增强集群效应并解决储能容量闲置问题,提出适应规模化储能参与现货市场的商业模式,包括独立式(投资主体单一、服务模式单一),联盟式(投资主体多样、服务模式单一),共享式(投资主体多样、服务模式多样),并分析市场交易链中存在的博弈关系,量化电能价值、辅助服务价值以及其他附加价值.在此基础上,基于主从博弈构建不同商业模式下储能参与现货联合市场的双层出清模型范式.上层模型以储能为领导者、以储能收益最大化为目标参与市场竞争,下层模型以调度和交易中心为跟随者、以社会福利最大化为目标进行联合出清;最后,基于改进的IEEE30节点系统,以典型交易场景为例验证所提参与商业模式的有效性和可行性.

风–光–氢–储综合能源系统日前经济调度

为了实现风–光–氢–储综合能源系统实时跟踪电网日前发电计划的优化调度,并考虑峰谷价电价规则,结合储能系统时空位移特性,使综合能源系统制氢、氢燃料电池发电经济效益最高,首先建立了风–光–氢–储各子系统数学模型及以电力经济最优为目标的日前优化调度模型,综合考虑系统功率平衡、运行状态、安全状态等指标约束,设定氢储系统优先出力对应的权重系数,采用智能群优化算法对系统目标函数进行迭代优化求解;最后根据某地风光负荷数据及分时电价信息,对所提优化调度方法在Matlab中进行分析验证,得到风–光–氢–储综合能源系统各子系统功率分配情况以实现最优经济性以及对电网日前调度指令的实时跟踪。