Single-fundamental-mode cryogenic(3.6 K)850-nm oxideconfined VCSEL

Cryogenic oxide-confined vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser(VCSEL)has promising application in cryogenic optical interconnect for cryogenic computing.In this paper,we demonstrate a cryogenic 850-nm oxide-confined VCSEL at around 4 K.The cryogenic VCSEL with an optical oxide aperture of 6.5μm in diameter can operate in single fundamental mode with a side-mode suppression-ratio of 36 dB at 3.6 K,and the fiber-coupled output power reaches 1 mW at 5 mA.The small signal modulation measurements at 298 and 292 K show the fabricated VCSEL has the potential to achieve a high modulation bandwidth at cryogenic temperature.

Room and cryogenic deformation behavior of AZ61 and AZ61-xCaO(x=0.5,1 wt.%)alloy

This study investigates the influence of CaO(0.5,1(wt.%))alloying on the microstructural evolution,texture development and deformation behavior of AZ61 magnesium alloy.The uniaxial tension tests at room(RT)and cryogenic(CT,-150℃)temperature were performed to investigate the twinability and dislocation behavior and its consequent effect on flow stress,ductility and strain hardening rate.The results showed that the AZ61-1CaO exhibited superior strength/ductility synergy at RT with a yield strength(YS)of 223 MPa and a ductility of 23% as compared to AZ61(178 MPa,18.5%)and AZ61-0.5CaO(198 MPa,21%).Similar trend was witnessed for all the samples during CT deformation,where increase in the YS and decrease in ductility were observed.The Mtex tools based in-grain misorientation axis(IGMA)analysis of RT deformed samples revealed the higher activities of prismatic slip in AZ61-CaO,which led to superior ductility.Moreover,subsequent EBSD analysis of CT deformed samples showed the increased fraction of fine{10-12}tension twins and nucleation of multiple{10-12}twin variants caused by higher local stress concentration at the grain boundaries,which imposed the strengthening by twin-twin interaction.Lastly,the detailed investigations on strengthening contributors showed that the dislocation strengthening has the highest contribution towards strength in all samples.

Reliable ferroelectricity down to cryogenic temperature in wakeup free Hf_(0.5)Zr_(0.5)O_(2)thin films by thermal atomic layer deposition

The performance and reliability of ferroelectric thin films at temperatures around a few Kelvin are critical for their application in cryo-electronics.In this work,TiN/Hf_(0.5)Zr_(0.5)O_(2)/TiN capacitors that are free from the wake-up effect are investigated systematically from room temperature(300 K)to cryogenic temperature(30 K).We observe a consistent decrease in permittivity(εr)and a progressive increase in coercive electric field(Ec)as temperatures decrease.Our investigation reveals exceptional stability in the double remnant polarization(2P_(r))of our ferroelectric thin films across a wide temperature range.Specifically,at 30 K,a 2P_(r)of 36μC/cm^(2)under an applied electric field of 3.0 MV/cm is achieved.Moreover,we observed a reduced fatigue effect at 30 K in comparison to 300 K.The stable ferroelectric properties and endurance characteristics demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing HfO_(2)based ferroelectric thin films for cryo-electronics applications.

Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy on beam-sensitive materials and quantum science

Transmission electron microscopy(TEM)offers unparalleled atomic-resolution imaging of complex materials and heterogeneous structures.However,high-energy imaging electrons can induce structural damage,posing a challenge for electron-beam-sensitive materials.Cryogenic TEM(Cryo-TEM)has revolutionized structural biology,enabling the visualization of biomolecules in their near-native states at unprecedented detail.The low electron dose imaging and stable cryogenic environment in Cryo-TEM are now being harnessed for the investigation of electron-beam-sensitive materials and low-temperature quantum phenomena.Here,we present a systematic review of the interaction mechanisms between imaging electrons and atomic structures,illustrating the electron beam-induced damage and the mitigating role of Cryo-TEM.This review then explores the advancements in low-dose Cryo-TEM imaging for elucidating the structures of organic-based materials.Furthermore,we showcase the application of Cryo-TEM in the study of strongly correlated quantum materials,including the detection of charge order and novel topological spin textures.Finally,we discuss the future prospects of Cryo-TEM,emphasizing its transformative potential in unraveling the complexities of materials and phenomena across diverse scientific disciplines.

Thermally-induced cracking behaviors of coal reservoirs subjected to cryogenic liquid nitrogen shock

The benefits of using cryogenic liquid nitrogen shock to enhance coal permeability have been confirmed from experimental perspectives.In this paper,we develop a fully coupled thermo-elastic model in combination with the strain-based isotropic damage theory to uncover the cooling-dominated cracking behaviors through three typical cases,i.e.coal reservoirs containing a wellbore,a primary fracture,and a natural fracture network,respectively.The progressive cracking processes,from thermal fracture initiation,propagation or cessation,deflection,bifurcation to multi-fracture interactions,can be well captured by the numerical model.It is observed that two hierarchical levels of thermal fractures are formed,in which the number of shorter thermal fractures consistently exceeds that of the longer ones.The effects of coal properties related to thermal stress levels and thermal diffusivity on the fracture morphology are quantified by the fracture fractal dimension and the statistical fracture number.The induced fracture morphology is most sensitive to changes in the elastic modulus and thermal expansion coefficient,both of which dominate the complexity of the fracture networks.Coal reservoir candidates with preferred thermal-mechanical properties are also recommended for improving the stimulation effect.Further findings are that there exists a critical injection temperature and a critical in-situ stress difference,above which no thermal fractures would be formed.Preexisting natural fractures with higher density and preferred orientations are also essential for the formation of complex fracture networks.The obtained results can provide some theoretical support for cryogenic fracturing design in coal reservoirs.

Cryogenic springback of 2219-W aluminum alloy sheet through V-shaped bending

A V-shaped bending device was established to evaluate the effects of temperature and bending fillet radius on springback behavior of 2219-W aluminum alloy at cryogenic temperatures.The cryogenic springback mechanism was elucidated through mechanical analyses and numerical simulations.The results indicated that the springback angle at cryogenic temperatures was greater than that at room temperature.The springback angle increased further as the temperature returned to ambient conditions,attributed to the combined effects of the “dual enhancement effect” and thermal expansion.Notably,a critical fillet radius made the springback angle zero for 90° V-shaped bending.The critical fillet radius at cryogenic temperatures was smaller than that at room temperature,owing to the influence of temperature variations on the bending moment ratio between the forward bending section at the fillet and the reverse bending section of the straight arm.

Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Microstructure and Tribological Property Evolution of Electron Beam Melted Ti6Al4V

Cryogenic treatment was used to improve the tribological properties of Ti6Al4V artificial hip joint implants.Cryogenic treatment at-196℃with different holding time were carried out on Ti6Al4V specimens fabricated using electron beam melting(EBM),and their microstructure and tribological properties evolution were systematically analyzed by scanning electron microscopy(SEM),vickers hardness,and wear tests.The experimental results show that the as-fabricated specimen consists of lamellarαphase andβcolumnar crystal.While,the thickness of lamellarαphase decreased after cryogenic treatment.In addition,it can be found that the fineαphase was precipitated and dispersed between the lamellarαphase with the holding time increase.Vickers hardness shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing.The wear rate of the specimen cryogenic treated for 24 h is the minimum and the average friction coefficient is 0.50,which is reduced by 14.61%compared with the as-fabricated.The wear mechanism of the as-fabricated specimen is severe exfoliation,adhesive,abrasive,and slight fatigue wear.However,the specimen cryogenic treated for 24 h shows slight adhesive and abrasive wear.It can be concluded that it is feasibility of utilizing cryogenic treatment to reduce the wear of EBMed Ti6Al4V.

Cryogenic and conventional milling of AZ91 magnesium alloy

Use of magnesium is the need of the hour due to its low density as well as its high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratio etc.This study focuses on the effectiveness of liquid nitrogen(LN_(2))assisted cryogenic machining on the surface integrity(SI)characteristics of AZ91 magnesium alloy.Face milling using uncoated carbide inserts have been performed under liquid nitrogen(LN_(2))assisted cryogenic condition and compared with conventional(dry)milling.Experiments are performed using machining parameters in terms of cutting speeds of 325,475,625 m/min,feed rates of 0.05,0.1,0.15 mm/teeth and depth of cuts of 0.5,1,1.5 mm respectively.Most significant surface integrity characteristics such as surface roughness,microhardness,microstructure,and residual stresses have been investigated.Behaviour of SI characteristics with respect to milling parameters have been identified using statistical technique such as ANOVA and signal-to-noise(S/N)ratio plots.Additionally,the multi criteria decision making(MCDM)techniques such as additive ratio assessment method(ARAS)and complex proportional assessment(COPRAS)have been utilized to identify the optimal conditions for milling AZ91 magnesium alloy under both dry and cryogenic conditions.Use of LN_(2)during machining,resulted in reduction in machining temperature by upto 29%with a temperature drop from 251.2℃under dry condition to 178.5℃in cryogenic condition.Results showed the advantage of performing cryogenic milling in improving the surface integrity to a significant extent.Cryogenic machining considerably minimized the roughness by upto 28%and maximised the microhardness by upto 23%,when compared to dry machining.Cutting speed has caused significant impact on surface roughness(95.33%-dry,92.92%-cryogenic)and surface microhardness(80.33%-dry,82.15%-cryogenic).Due to the reduction in machining temperature,cryogenic condition resulted in compressive residual stresses(maximumσ║=-113 MPa)on the alloy surface.Results indicate no harm to alloy microstructure in both conditions,with no alterations to grain integrity and minimal reduction in the average grain sizes in the near machined area,when compared to before machined(base material)surface.The MCDM approach namely ARAS and COPRAS resulted in identical results,with the optimal condition being cutting speed of 625 m/min,a feed rate of 0.05 mm/teeth,and a depth of cut of 0.5 mm for both dry and cryogenic environments.

Bio-Based Rigid Polyurethane Foams for Cryogenic Insulation

Cryogenic insulation material rigid polyurethane(PU)foams were developed using bio-based and recycled feedstock.Polyols obtained from tall oil fatty acids produced as a side stream of wood biomass pulping and recycled polyethylene terephthalate were used to develop rigid PU foam formulations.The 4th generation physical blowing agents with low global warming potential and low ozone depletion potential were used to develop rigid PU foam cryogenic insulation with excellent mechanical and thermal properties.Obtained rigid PU foams had a thermal conductivity coefficient as low as 0.0171 W/m·K and an apparent density of 37-40 kg/m^(3).The developed rigid PU foams had anisotropic compression strength properties,which were higher parallel to the foaming direction.Moreover,the compression strength was also influenced by the type of applied bio-based polyol.The bio-based polyols with higher OH group functionality delivered higher crosslinking density of polymer matrix;thus,the mechanical properties were also higher.The mechanical strength of the foams increased when materials were tested at liquid nitrogen temperature due to the stiffening of the polymer matrix.The thermal properties of the developed materials were determined using differential scanning calorimetry,dynamic mechanical analysis,and thermogravimetric analysis methods.Lastly,the developed rigid PU foams had good adhesion to the aluminium substrate before and after applying cyroshock and an excellent safety coefficient of 4-5.Rigid PU foams developed using Solstice LBA delivered adhesion strength of~0.5 MPa and may be considered for application as cryogenic insulation in the aerospace industry.

Feasibility Analysis of Typical Cryogenic Processes for Hydrogen-Mixed Natural Gas Separation

Hydrogen energy is a crucial carrier for the growth of the energy system and its low-carbon transformation.Using natural gas as a carrier of hydrogen transport and the natural gas pipeline network for transportation is a significant step toward realizing large-scale and long-distance hydrogen transport.Hydrogen-mixed natural gas is mainly separated into hydrogen and natural gas by physical methods at present.High purity of hydrogen recovery,but the recovery rate is low.At the same time,compared with natural gas,liquefied natural gas is more economical and flexible.This study analyzes three typical cryogenic separation processes.The results show that the hydrogen separation efficiency and specific energy consumption increase and the liquefaction rate and energy consumption decrease as the hydrogen ratio increases.The energy consumption and specific energy consumption of C3-MRC are lower than the MRC and the cascade liquefaction processes.Besides,as the pressure increases in the C3-MRC liquefaction process,the liquefaction and hydrogen separation efficiency increase and subsequently drop.Different hydrogen content has the highest hydrogen separation efficiency and liquefaction efficiency under different feed gas pressure conditions.The total exergy losses of the C3-MRC are the least in different hydrogen fractions,which are 37.59%and 21.77%less in the 25%hydrogen fraction,and 37.89%and 21.37%less in the 30%hydrogen fraction.Moreover,the exergy efficiency of C3-MRC are 87.68%and 88.06%when the hydrogen fraction are 25%and 30%,higher than the other two processes,which implies that in 25%and 30%fractions,making it more suitable for separate the hydrogen by the cryogenic separation.

Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the microstructural,mechanical and ballistic properties of AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy

The study focused on investigating the effect of Deep Cryogenic Treatment(DCT)on the mechanical and ballistic properties of AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy.The microstructure,microhardness,tensile strength,and impact strength of the Base Material(BM)and DCT-treated 7075 samples were analyzed through metallographic analysis and mechanical tests.The microstructure of the DCT-treated 7075 samples revealed fine grains and a distribution of secondary phase particles.The tensile strength,impact strength,and microhardness of DCT-treated samples increased by 7.41%,4%,and 9.68%,respectively,compared to the BM samples.The fractography analysis of the tensile samples showed cleavage facets,microvoids,and dimples in both the samples.The ballistic behavior of the BM and DCT target plates were studied by impacting hard steel core projectiles at a velocity of 750±10 m/s.The target plates failed due to petaling and ductile hole enlargement,and the depth of penetration(DOP)of the DCT target was less than that of the BM target,indicating a higher ballistic resistance.The post-ballistic microstructure examination of the target plates showed the formation of an Adiabatic Shear Band(ASB)without any cracks.It was concluded that the DCT treatment improved the mechanical and ballistic properties of the aluminum alloy due to grain refinement and high dislocation density.

Squeezed state generation using cryogenic InP HEMT nonlinearity

This study focuses on generating and manipulating squeezed states with two external oscillators coupled by an InP HEMT operating at cryogenic temperatures.First,the small-signal nonlinear model of the transistor at high frequency at 5 K is analyzed using quantum theory,and the related Lagrangian is theoretically derived.Subsequently,the total quantum Hamiltonian of the system is derived using Legendre transformation.The Hamiltonian of the system includes linear and nonlinear terms by which the effects on the time evolution of the states are studied.The main result shows that the squeezed state can be generated owing to the transistor’s nonlinearity;more importantly,it can be manipulated by some specific terms introduced in the nonlinear Hamiltonian.In fact,the nonlinearity of the transistors induces some effects,such as capacitance,inductance,and second-order transconductance,by which the properties of the external oscillators are changed.These changes may lead to squeezing or manipulating the parameters related to squeezing in the oscillators.In addition,it is theoretically derived that the circuit can generate two-mode squeezing.Finally,second-order correlation(photon counting statistics)is studied,and the results demonstrate that the designed circuit exhibits antibunching,where the quadrature operator shows squeezing behavior.

Achieving high ductility and strength in magnesium alloy through cryogenic-hot forming

Magnesium alloys are the lightest structural alloys and have attracted substantial research attention in the past two decades. However, their mechanical properties, including ductility and strength, are limited after forming due to the formation of coarse grains and strong texture. This study proposes and proves a new cryogenic-hot forming process concept. Cryogenic deformation is imposed before the hot deformation. The effect of the cryogenic step has been compared with a conventional direct hot deformation process. The mechanical properties, microstructure,and texture of both the novel and conventional process routes have been compared. The cryogenic-hot deformed sample exhibits the highest ductility and fracture strength(ultimate tensile strength: 321 MPa, ductility: 21%) due to effective grain refinement and texture weakening by cryogenically formed twin-twin interaction induced recrystallisation. The proposed cryogenic-hot forming process can be a potential innovative manufacturing method for producing high-performance magnesium components.

A cryogenic radio-frequency ion trap for a 40Ca^(+) optical clock

A liquid-nitrogen cryogenic40Ca^(+)optical clock is presented that is designed to greatly reduce the blackbody radiation(BBR) shift. The ion trap, the electrodes and the in-vacuum BBR shield are installed under the liquid-nitrogen container,keeping the ions in a cryogenic environment at liquid-nitrogen temperature. Compared with the first design in our previous work, many improvements have been made to increase the performance. The liquid-nitrogen maintenance time has been increased by about three times by increasing the volume of the liquid-nitrogen container;the trap position recovery time after refilling the liquid-nitrogen container has been decreased more than three times by using a better fixation scheme in the liquid-nitrogen container;and the magnetic field noise felt by the ions has been decreased more than three times by a better design of the magnetic shielding system. These optimizations make the scheme for reducing the BBR shift uncertainty of liquid-nitrogen-cooled optical clocks more mature and stable, and develop a stable lock with a narrower linewidth spectrum,which would be very beneficial for further reducing the overall systematic uncertainty of optical clocks.

Research and Prediction on the Properties of Concrete at Cryogenic Temperature Based on Gray Theory

To solve the cryogenic temperature problems faced by all-concrete liquefied natural gas(ACLNG)storage tanks during servicing,a low temperature resistant and high strength concrete(LHC)was designed from the perspectives of reducing water-binder ratio,removing coarse aggregates,optimizing composite mineral admixture and utilizing steel fibers.The variation laws of compressive and tensile strength,elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio for C60 concrete and LHC were compared and analyzed under the temperatures from 10 to-165℃through uniaxial compression and tensile tests.The rapid freezing method was adopted to analyze the evolution process of mass and relative dynamic elastic modulus loss rates for C60 and LHC in 0-300 freeze-thaw cycles.The gas permeability test was carried out,and the laws of gas permeability coefficient varied with temperature and cryogenic freeze-thaw cycles were obtained.Then,the grey dynamic model GM(1,1)was used to predict the variation laws of physical and mechanical parameters on the basis of the test data.The test results demonstrate that the compressive strength,elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio for both C60 and LHC increase significantly from 10 to-165℃,but the specific variation laws are difierent,and there is a phenomenon that some parameters decrease after reaching a critical temperature range for C60.The uniaxial tensile strength increases first and then decreases as temperature decreases,and finally increases slightly at-165℃for both C60 and LHC.The mass and relative dynamic elastic modulus loss rates of LHC are much lower than that of C60 under different freeze-thaw cycles.The gas permeability coefficient of C60 declines gradually with the drop of temperature,and increases gradually with the number of freeze-thaw cycles while the gas permeability coefficient of LHC basically remains stable and is much lower than that of C60.Therefore,such a conclusion can be drawn that LHC has better properties at cryogenic temperature.On the premise of providing consistent functional mode,GM(1,1)can predict the test data with high accuracy,which well reflects the variation laws of relevant parameters.

Formation of nanocrystalline AZ31B Mg alloys via cryogenic rotary swaging

A bulk nanocrystalline AZ31B Mg alloy with extraordinarily high strength was prepared via cryogenic rotary swaging in this study.The obtained alloy shows finer grains,higher strength,and a negligible tension-compression yield asymmetry,compared with that prepared via room-temperature rotary swaging.Transmission electron microscopy investigations showed that at the initial stage,multiple twins,mostly tension twins,were activated and intersected with each other,thereby refining the coarse grains into a fine lamellar structure.Then,two types of nanoscale subgrains were generated with increasing swaging strain.The first type of nanoscale subgrain contained twin boundaries and low-angle grain boundaries.This type of subgrain appeared at the twin-twin intersections and was mainly driven by high local stress.The second type of nanoscale subgrain was formed within the twin lamellae.The boundaries of this type of subgrain did not contain twin boundaries and were transformed from massive dislocation arrays.Finally,randomly oriented nanograins were obtained via dynamic recrystallization,under the combined function of deformation heat and increased stored energy.Compared with room-temperature rotary swaging,cryogenic rotary swaging exhibits a slower grain refinement process but a remarkably enhanced grain refinement effect after the same five-pass swaging.

On-Site Assessment of a Cryogenic Disinfectant for the Alpine Environment and Outer Packaging of Frozen Items

Objective To study the effectiveness and feasibility of cryogenic disinfectants in different cold scenarios and analyze the key points of on-site cryogenic disinfection.Methods Qingdao and Suifenhe were selected as application sites for the manual or mechanical spraying of cryogenic disinfectants.The same amount of disinfectant(3,000 mg/L)was applied on cold chain food packaging,cold chain containers,transport vehicles,alpine environments,and article surfaces.The killing log value of the cryogenic disinfectant against the indicator microorganisms(Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli)was used to evaluate the on-site disinfection effect.Results When using 3,000 mg/L with an action time of 10 min on the ground in alpine regions,the surface of frozen items,cold-chain containers,and cold chain food packaging in supermarkets,all external surfaces were successfully disinfected,with a pass rate of 100%.The disinfection pass rates for cold chain food packaging and cold chain transport vehicles of centralized supervised warehouses and food processing enterprises were 12.5%(15/120),81.67%(49/60),and 93.33%(14/15),respectively;yet,the surfaces were not fully sprayed.Conclusion Cryogenic disinfectants are effective in disinfecting alpine environments and the outer packaging of frozen items.The application of cryogenic disinfectants should be regulated to ensure that they cover all surfaces of the disinfected object,thus ensuring effective cryogenic disinfection.

Tensile behavior of 3104 aluminum alloy processed by homogenization and cryogenic treatment

The mechanical properties of 3104 aluminum alloy processed by different combinations of cryogenic and homogenization treatments were studied. The 3104 aluminum alloy processed by the cryogenic treatment followed by homogenization exhibited an enhancement in the tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation by 29%, 41%, and 11%, respectively, as compared with a sample processed by the conventional homogenization treatment. The stress-strain curve of the sample processed by the homogenization treatment exhibited the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect, whereas the sample processed by the cryogenic treatment did not. Further, the cryogenic treatment could accelerate the precipitation of secondary phase particles for the sample processed by a deep cryogenic treatment, followed by a homogenization treatment, which enhanced the dislocation pinning effect of the solvent atoms and thus improved the critical strain.

Effects of deep cryogenic treatment on microstructure and properties of WC-11Co cemented carbides with various carbon contents

The effects of deep cryogenic treatment on the microstructure and properties of WC-11 Co cemented carbides with various carbon contents were investigated.The results show that after deep cryogenic treatment,WC grains are refined into triangular prism with sound edges via the process of spheroidization,but WC grain size has no evident change compared with that of untreated alloys.The phase transformation of Co phase from α-Co（FCC） to ε-Co（HCP） is observed in the cryogenically treated alloys,which is attributed to the decrease of W solubility in the binder（Co）.Deep cryogenic treatment enhances the hardness and bending strength of the alloys,while it has no significant effects on the density and cobalt magnetic performance.

FEM simulation and experimental verification of temperature field and phase transformation in deep cryogenic treatment

Combining with the low temperature material properties and the boiling heat transfer coefficient of specimen immersed in the liquid nitrogen, a numerical model based on metallo-thermo-mechanical couple theory was established to reproduce the deep cryogenic treatment （DCT） process of a newly developed cold work die steel Cr8Mo2SiV （SDC99）. Moreover, an experimental setup for rapid temperature measurement was designed to validate the simulation results. The investigation suggests that the differences in temperature and cooling rate between the surface and core of specimen are very significant. However, it should be emphasized that the acute temperature and cooling rate changes during DCT are mainly concentrated on the specimen surface region about 1/3 of the sample thickness. Subjected to DCT, the retained austenite of quenched specimen continues to transform to martensite and finally its phase volume fraction reduces to 2.3%. The predicted results are coincident well with the experimental data, which demonstrates that the numerical model employed in this study can accurately capture the variation characteristics of temperature and microstructure fields during DCT and provide a theoretical guidance for making the reasonable DCT procedure.