Probing the influence of secondary fracture connectivity on fracturing fluid flowback efficiency

A deep understanding of the geometric impacts of fracture on fracturing fluid flowback efficiency is essential for unconventional oil development. Using nuclear magnetic resonance and 2.5-dimensional matrix-fracture visualization microfluidic models, qualitative and quantitative descriptions of the influences of connectivity between primary fracture and secondary fracture on flowback were given from core scale to pore network scale. The flow patterns of oil-gel breaking fluid two-phase flow during flowback under different fracture connectivity were analyzed. We found some counterintuitive results that non-connected secondary fracture (NCSF, not connect with artificial primary fracture and embedded in the matrix) is detrimental to flowbackefficiency. The NCSF accelerates the formation of oil channeling during flowback, resulting in a large amount of fracturing fluid trapped in the matrix, which is not beneficial for flowback. Whereas the connected secondary fracture (CSF, connected with the artificial primary fracture) is conducive to flowback. The walls of CSF become part of primary fracture, which expands the drainage area with low resistance, and delays the formation of the oil flow channel. Thus, CSF increases the high-speed flowback stage duration, thereby enhancing the flowback efficiency. The fracturing fluid flowback efficiency investigated here follows the sequence of the connected secondary fracture model (72%) > the matrix model (66%) > the non-connected secondary fracture model (38%). Our results contribute to hydraulic fracturing design and the prediction of flowback efficiency.

A Review of the Dynamic Modeling Approaches for Characterizing Fluid Flow in Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

Fluid flow in fractured media has been studied for decades and received considerable attention in the oil and gas industry because of the high productivity of naturally fractured reservoirs.Due to formation complexity and reservoir heterogeneity,characterizing fluid flow with an appropriate reservoir model presents a challenging task that differs relatively from homogeneous conventional reservoirs in many aspects of view,including geological,petrophysical,production,and economics.In most fractured reservoirs,fracture networks create complex pathways that affect hydrocarbon flow,well performance,hence reservoir characterization.A better and comprehensive understanding of the available reservoir modeling approaches is much needed to accurately characterize fluid flow behavior in NFRs.Therefore,in this paper,a perspective review of the available modeling approaches was presented for fluid flow characterization in naturally fractured medium.Modeling methods were evaluated in terms of their description,application,advantages,and disadvantages.This study has also included the applications of these reservoir models in fluid flow characterizing studies and governing equations for fluid flow.Dual continuum models were proved to be better than single continuum models in the presence of large scale fractures.In comparison,discrete models were more appropriate for reservoirs that contain a smaller number of fractures.However,hybrid modeling was the best method to provide accurate and scalable fluid flow modeling.It is our understanding that this paper will bridge the gap between the fundamental understanding and application of NFRs modeling approaches and serve as a useful reference for engineers and researchers for present and future applications.

Sensitivity assessment of strontium isotope as indicator of polluted groundwater for hydraulic fracturing flowback fluids produced in the Dameigou Shale of Qaidam Basin

Hydrogeochemical processes that would occur in polluted groundwater and aquifer system,may reduce the sensitivity of Sr isotope being the indicator of hydraulic fracturing flowback fluids(HFFF)in groundwater.In this paper,the Dameigou shale gas field in the northern Qaidam Basin was taken as the study area,where the hydrogeochemical processes affecting Sr isotope was analysed.Then,the model for Sr isotope in HFFF-polluted groundwater was constructed to assess the sensitivity of Sr isotope as HFFF indicator.The results show that the dissolution can release little Sr to polluted groundwater and cannot affect the εSr(the deviation of the 87Sr/86Sr ratio)of polluted groundwater.In the meantime,cation exchange can considerably affect Sr composition in the polluted groundwater.The Sr with low εSr is constantly released to groundwater from the solid phase of aquifer media by cation exchange with pollution of Quaternary groundwater by the HFFF and it accounts for 4.6% and 11.0% of Sr in polluted groundwater when the HFFF flux reaches 10% and 30% of the polluted groundwater,respectively.However,the Sr from cation exchange has limited impact on Sr isotope in polluted groundwater.Addition of Sr from cation exchange would only cause a 0.2%and 1.2% decrease in εSr of the polluted groundwater when the HFFF flux reaches 10% and 30% of the polluted groundwater,respectively.These results demonstrate that hydrogeochemical processes have little effect on the sensitivity of Sr isotope being the HFFF indicator in groundwater of the study area.For the scenario of groundwater pollution by HFFF,when the HFFF accounts for 5%(in volume percentage)of the polluted groundwater,the HFFF can result in detectable shifts of εSr(Δ_(εSr)=0.86)in natural groundwater.Therefore,after consideration of hydrogeochemical processes occurred in aquifer with input of the HFFF,Sr isotope is still a sensitive indicator of the Quaternary groundwater pollution by the HFFF produced in the Dameigou shale of Qaidam Basin.

Numerical Modelling of Proppant Transport in Hydraulic Fractures

The distribution of proppant injected in hydraulic fractures significantly affects the fracture conductivity and well performance.The proppant transport in thin fracturing fluid used during hydraulic fracturing in the unconventional reservoirs is considerably different from fracturing fluids in the conventional reservoir due to the very low viscosity and quick deposition of the proppants.This paper presents the development of a three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD)modelling technique for the prediction of proppant-fluid multiphase flow in hydraulic fractures.The proposed model also simulates the fluid leak-off behaviour from the fracture wall.The Euler-Granular and CFD-Discrete Element Method(CFD-DEM)multiphase modelling approach has been applied,and the equations defining the fluid-proppant and inter-proppant interaction have been solved using the finite volume technique.The proppant transport in hydraulic fractures has been studied comprehensively,and the computational modelling results of proppant distribution and other flow properties are in good agreement with the published experimental study.The parametric study is performed to investigate the effect of variation in proppant size,fluid viscosity and fracture width on the proppant transport.Smaller proppants can be injected early,followed by larger proppants to maintain high propping efficiency.This study has enhanced the understanding of the complex flow phenomenon between proppant and fracturing fluid and can play a vital role in hydraulic fracturing design.

MODEL AND METHOD OF WELL TEST ANALYSIS FORWELLS WITH VERTICAL FRACTURE

Based on the flow mechanism of hydraulic fractured wells, through integrating linear-flow model and effective well-radius model, a new model of well test analysis for wells with vertical fracture was established. In the model, wellbore storage, the damage in the wall of fracture and all kinds of boundary conditions are considered. The model is concise in form, has intact curves and computes fast, which may meet the demand of real-time computation and fast responded well test interpretation. A new method to determine effective well radius was presented, and the correlation between effective well radius and the fracture length, fracture conductivity, skin factor of fracture was given. Matching flow rate or pressure tested, the optimization model that identified formation and fracture parameters was set up. The automatic matching method was presented by synthetically using step by step linear least square method and sequential quadratic programming. At last, the application was also discussed. Application shows that all of these results can analyze and evaluate the fracturing treatment quality scientifically and rationally, instruct and modify the design of fracturing and improve fracturing design level.

A Simulation Approach for Screening of EOR Scenarios in Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

Undoubtedly, plenty of hydrocarbon sources are located in carbonate rocks, particularly those which are naturally fractured that is still needed to study their characterization, because of their complex and unconventional behavior. Therefore, applying any processes that cause Enhancing Oil Recovery (EOR) from Naturally Fractured Reservoirs (NFR) seems necessary and useful. However, selecting the best developed scenario is always challenging. Screening criteria would determine the possibility of implementing an EOR process. While, utilizing trade marketing simulators can solve this problem. Moreover, simulation can evaluate other parameters such as water cut and gas-oil ratio. In this research, an aquifer-supported Iranian NFR with two parts that are separated to each other with a shale layer is considered in order to select the best EOR scenario. The fluid model is created using PVTi software. Various production scenarios included natural depletion, water flooding, miscible carbon dioxide injection, water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection, simultaneous water- alternating-gas (SWAG) injection, hybrid injection, and gas recycling are simulated in ECLIPSE Compositional (E300) and their recovery factor recorded as the target parameter. The developed scenarios are designed in a way that gives the optimized results, i.e. higher recovery factor, less water cut as well as the less gas-oil ratio. As a result, SWAG shows better conditions and is recommended for the further studies of the reservoir management plan in the future. Also, the role of the aquifer in the SWAG scenario is positive by creating a natural WAG in addition to the SWAG. Additionally, the average reservoir pressure through fractures reduces less in the SWAG than the other Scenarios, the oil and gas production rate reduce less in the SWAG and SWAG/ miscible gas respectively than the other scenarios. The maximum and the minimum water cut are related to the water flooding and SWAG, respectively.Finally, the simulation approach of EOR screening in NFR is better than other approaches, from the perspective of economic issues as well as the simplicity of the methods.

Enlightenment of calcite veins in deep Ordovician Wufeng-Silurian Longmaxi shales fractures to migration and enrichment of shale gas in southern Sichuan Basin, SW China

The relationship between fracture calcite veins and shale gas enrichment in the deep Ordovician Wufeng Formation-Silurian Longmaxi Formation (Wufeng-Longmaxi) shales in southern Sichuan Basin was investigated through core and thin section observations, cathodoluminescence analysis, isotopic geochemistry analysis, fluid inclusion testing, and basin simulation. Tectonic fracture calcite veins mainly in the undulating part of the structure and non-tectonic fracture calcite veins are mainly formed in the gentle part of the structure. The latter, mainly induced by hydrocarbon generation, occurred at the stage of peak oil and gas generation, while the former turned up with the formation of Luzhou paleouplift during the Indosinian. Under the influence of hydrocarbon generation pressurization process, fractures were opened and closed frequently, and oil and gas episodic activities are recorded by veins. The formation pressure coefficient at the maximum paleodepth exceeds 2.0. The formation uplift stage after the Late Yanshanian is the key period for shale gas migration. Shale gas migrates along the bedding to the high part of the structure. The greater the structural fluctuation is, the more intense the shale gas migration activity is, and the loss is more. The gentler the formation is, the weaker the shale gas migration activity is, and the loss is less. The shale gas enrichment in the core of gentle anticlines and gentle synclines is relatively higher.

热液成矿系统构造控矿理论

构造对成矿的控制是热液成矿系统的典型特征之一,系统剖析多重尺度控矿构造的几何学、运动学、动力学、流变学和热力学对认识矿床成因和预测找矿至关重要;而如何实现控矿构造格架、渗透性结构、成矿流体通道和矿化变形网络由静态到多尺度时-空四维动态的转变,查明流体通道和矿床增量生长过程与控制因素,揭示热液成矿系统的构造-流体耦合成矿机制和定位规律是亟待解决的关键科学难题。为此,我们在对已有相关成果系统梳理的基础上,提出了科学构建热液成矿系统构造控矿理论的基本要点与对应方法及应用范畴:(1)流体而非构造是构造控矿理论的中心,热液系统的流体流动与成矿作用受控于断裂带格架及其渗透性结构,其中渗透率是将流体流动与流体压力变化联系起来理解控矿构造的核心;(2)不同控矿构造组合的关键控制是构造差应力和流体压力的大小,而矿化类型的变化可能是由于构造应力场引起的容矿构造方位的不同和赋矿围岩之间的强度差异所致;(3)流体通道的生长始于超压流体储库上游围岩中孤立的微裂隙沿流体压力梯度最大的方向、随裂隙发育且相互连结而形成新的长裂隙,并最终连通形成断裂网络内的流体通道,矿床的增量生长发生在高流体通量的短爆发期,断层反复滑动驱动其内流体压力、流速和应力快速变化,当由此诱发的流体通道生长破坏了流体系统的动态平衡时,随之而来的流体快速降压就成为金属沉淀成矿的关键驱动因素;(4)以热液裂隙-脉系统野外地质观测和构造-蚀变-矿化网络三维填图为基础,通过宏观与微观各级控矿构造相结合、地质历史与构造应力分析相结合、局部与区域点-线-面相结合、浅部与深部相结合、时间与空间相结合、定性和定量相结合,对各种控矿因素开展多学科、多尺度、多层次、全方位综合研究,是应遵循的基本原则;(5)通过构造-蚀变-矿化网络填图,将蚀变-矿化体与控矿构造的类型、形态、规模、产状和间距等几何学特征联系起来,利用热液裂隙-脉系统和断裂网络拓扑学及矿体三维几何结构分析等定量方法查明控矿构造格架和渗透性结构并揭示矿化变形网络的连通性与成矿潜力;(6)合理构建地质模型,选取合适的热力学参数和动力学边界条件,利用HCh和COMSOL等方法,定量模拟成矿过程中的流体流动、热-质传递、应力变形和化学反应等的时-空变化,是揭示构造-流体耦合成矿机理和定位规律、预测矿化中心和确定找矿目标的有效途径。进而提出了构造控矿理论的研究流程:聚焦构造-流体耦合成矿机制和定位规律这一关键科学问题,选择热液裂隙-脉系统和构造-蚀变-矿化网络为重点研究对象;通过几何学描述、运动学判断、流变学分析、动力学解析和热力学综合,厘定控矿构造格架,定位矿化中心,示踪成矿流体通道和多种矿化样式的增量生长过程及其关键控制,揭示渗透性结构的时-空演变规律及构造再活化与成矿定位的成因关联,建立构造-流体耦合成矿模式,服务新一轮战略找矿突破。以胶东焦家金矿田为例,开展控矿构造理论研究和成矿预测应用实践,证实了其科学性和有效性。

压裂复杂裂缝中支撑剂输送数值模拟研究

在非常规储层水力压裂施工过程中,水力裂缝容易与天然裂缝交汇形成复杂裂缝,支撑剂的运移和铺置形态直接决定了储层的增产效果。为了研究支撑剂在复杂裂缝中的铺置规律,基于欧拉-欧拉方法建立了支撑剂-压裂液两相流数学模型,并利用复杂裂缝室内实验装置与数值模拟的砂堤铺置形态对比的方式进行了模型验证,结果表明,选取的模型可用于研究滑溜水在复杂裂缝内的携带支撑剂的运移铺置规律。以相似准则为基础,建立了简化的复杂裂缝平板模型,并将砂堤形态参数、砂堤面积进行归一化处理,获得了压裂液排量、黏度、支撑剂粒径、裂缝宽度以及裂缝形态对支撑剂在复杂裂缝中铺置的影响规律。结果表明:增大排量、黏度和减小粒径均有利于支撑剂向裂缝深处运移,并且排量对支缝中的砂堤形态影响最明显,但增大排量不利于支撑剂填充近井地带。缝宽的影响体现在壁面效应,在注入时间相同的情况下,当压裂液黏度从1 mPa·s增加到5 mPa·s时,主缝砂堤的归一化长度平均增加了37.9%,归一化高度平均降低了61.4%。裂缝结构越复杂,所有支缝中的支撑剂铺置面积占比越高,分流作用越大。随着复杂裂缝的支缝数量、级数以及支缝延伸长度的增大,支缝中的砂堤高度与长度均有所降低;相对于T1型裂缝,T3和T5型裂缝中的砂堤长度、高度减小最多。

阳春沟区块页岩气超临界CO_(2)增能压裂研究与应用

目的目前,超临界CO_(2)压裂应用前景广阔,为更好地指导现场应用,亟需明确超临界CO_(2)压裂的起裂压力和裂缝扩展规律。方法考虑压裂过程温度变化对CO_(2)物性的影响以及岩石中的热应力作用,建立热流固耦合超临界CO_(2)压裂模型。探究了水平应力差、天然裂缝逼近角以及CO_(2)注入温度对裂缝起裂的影响。结果在阳春沟Y井开展的现场试验表明:与水力压裂相比,超临界CO_(2)压裂可以明显降低裂缝起裂压力,即使在高水平应力差下,仍可以获得复杂的裂缝形态;天然裂缝逼近角增大,起裂压力随之增大,裂缝复杂程度增加;CO_(2)注入温度与地层温差越大,热应力作用越明显,裂缝形态越复杂。结论现场应用显示注入前置超临界CO_(2)可以有效降低起裂压力,有利于提高后续水力压裂的缝内净压力,增强储层改造效果。

基于格子Boltzmann模型的裂缝性储层钻井液漏失数值模拟

针对裂缝性碳酸盐岩储层钻井过程中钻井液漏失问题,基于简化的基块-裂缝双重介质物理模型,建立了描述表征单元体(REV)尺度的基块-裂缝内钻井液漏失的格子Boltzmann数学模型,数值模拟分析了钻井液漏失过程基块-裂缝内渗流场分布,揭示了不同条件下基块-裂缝内钻井液漏失行为。模拟结果表明,裂缝性致密碳酸盐岩储层中的裂缝为主要漏失空间,基块的钻井液漏失量在低值范围内随基块孔隙度增加呈指数增加。裂缝宽度越大,平均流速越大,裂缝空间内速度分布越均匀,组合裂缝总宽度相等条件下,单条裂缝的钻井液漏失速率高于多条裂缝组合情形。研究通过格子Boltzmann方法表征钻井液漏失行为,表明该方法可较好地用于分析裂缝性介质中钻井液漏失行为和裂缝至基块的跨尺度滤失过程,研究成果可为裂缝性致密储层钻井液漏失防控及储层保护提供理论依据。

考虑断层破碎带影响的隧道结构地震反应研究

为研究跨断层隧道在渗流-地震耦合作用下的动力响应,以宣绩铁路周湾村隧道穿越富水断层为背景,基于Biot固结动力方程,采用有限差分软件FLAC 3D进行多场耦合数值计算。本文主要分析了断层破碎带宽度对隧道衬砌特征点加速度、孔压、位移及应力响应规律的影响。研究结果表明,对隧道结构不同位置而言,加速度响应规律一致,均为正常段加速度<破碎带加速度<交界面加速度。耦合场作用下,地层与破碎带交界处围岩位移及应力均发生突变。随着断层宽度的增加,应力及位移突变范围有所增大,孔隙水压力峰值也进一步扩大。此时隧道受压区增大,衬砌结构易发生局部破坏。通过加设注浆层的方式,可有效减少耦合场作用引起的拱圈应力分布不均现象。

英山地热田区深大断裂的控水控热作用及地热系统成因研究

目前对英山地区深部地温场的分布情况以及构造控热模式尚无系统研究,不利于地热资源科学的开发利用。基于野外裂隙测量、浅层连续测温、钻孔压水试验等成果,建立了英山裂隙岩体地下水渗流-传热三维模型,对深部储层在不同构造组合模式下的压力场、温度场和达西流速场进行分析。研究结果表明:研究区深部温度场和压力场受断裂系统影响较大,在致密基岩及隔水断层处,流体运动微弱,热量运移以热传导为主,导水断层处以热对流为主;在深部导水断层区域温度和水压偏低,与导水断层处相比,隔水断层处水压偏高;在2 000 m深度以深,高温区和水力交换强烈区与导水断层带处完全对应,表明断层是储层中最主要的流体和热量运移通道;区内断层组合模式为复合模式,北东向断层为英山地区主要导水导热构造,热水在沿北东向断层向上运移的过程中,受南北向断层的阻隔,最终在两组断层的交叉复合位置处形成温泉。该研究可为研究区内的地热资源科学勘查和合理开发利用提供参考。

油气田压裂返排液中污染气体浓度及扩散模型研究

油气田在实施压裂作业时,返排液中的污染气体会排放至大气中,造成大气污染。为此,研究油气田压裂返排液中污染气体浓度及扩散模型。以延安油气田为研究区域,采集和分析区域内污染气体样本,设计污染气体测定流程。利用多元矢量值函数获取污染气体扩散程度,建立点、线、面源扩散模型。结合上述模型,构建污染气体不同成分的浓度扩散模型。根据扩散分布形式可知,污染成分浓度峰值多维持在活动较为频繁的日间,地点上多位于返排池中心上方,随风向以点源、线源、面源等形式向下风口呈不同程度递减。

裂缝性地层钻井液漏失模型及漏失规律

针对裂缝性地层钻井作业时的钻井液漏失问题,采用幂律模式钻井液,将地层中裂缝看作任意倾角、可变形、裂缝面粗糙且存在滤失的二维单条裂缝模型,引入裂缝力学开度和裂缝迂曲度参数表征裂缝面粗糙度对钻井液漏失规律的影响,推导了钻井液漏失模型,并基于该模型分析了钻井液漏失规律。研究结果表明,幂律模式钻井液的剪切稀释性会造成漏失初始阶段漏失速率的升高;钻井液漏失速率随裂缝迂曲度变大而减小,随着裂缝开度增加裂缝迂曲度对钻井液漏失速率的影响降低;初始裂缝开度、裂缝倾角、裂缝面积、裂缝长度越大,钻井液漏失速率越大;矩形裂缝的钻井液漏失速率低于正方形裂缝;裂缝面滤失综合系数越大,钻井液漏失速率越高;井眼与裂缝相交于裂缝中心位置时钻井液漏失速率最高;随着井底压差增大,钻井液漏失速率明显升高;裂缝法向刚度越高,钻井液漏失速率越小。

裂缝性地层钻井液漏失动力学模型研究进展

为了有效预防和控制裂缝性地层中可能发生的井漏,需要明确钻井液漏失原因,了解钻井液漏失特征及规律,准确预测原地裂缝宽度。借鉴油藏数值模拟和试井的研究思路,通过建立钻井液漏失动力学模型,可以分析井漏的影响因素,反演裂缝宽度,诊断漏失类型,揭示漏失的特征及规律,为防漏堵漏技术研究提供新思路。综述了钻井液漏失动力学模型的研究进展,详细分析了一维径向漏失模型、一维线性漏失模型及二维平面漏失模型的优缺点,阐述了钻井液漏失模型的应用情况,指出耦合井筒压力系统的漏失模型、裂缝网络漏失模型及缝洞型地层漏失模型是今后的主要发展趋势。

新型碳酸盐岩油气层酸压技术——固体酸酸压技术

对高温油气层实施酸压时,由于酸岩反应速度过快,酸蚀裂缝长度有限,往往导致酸压效果不理想。文章提出了一种新型的酸压工艺技术——固体酸酸压工艺技术,其基本原理是将常规酸固化成颗粒,然后用非反应流体压开裂缝并将固体酸携带入裂缝中预定位置;并根据所设计裂缝的长度和导流能力确定布酸方式,最后注入释放液,使固体酸释放出酸并与岩石作用,从而实现对裂缝壁面的刻蚀并实现深部改造。借鉴水力压裂模拟思想,应用流体力学、线弹性断裂力学、渗流力学和输砂力学等理论,建立了一套包括裂缝拟三维延伸、固体酸的运移/沉降、酸岩反应和酸蚀裂缝参数模拟等模型在内的固体酸酸压优化设计计算模型和求解方法,模型能够较好地模拟裂缝延伸规律、固体酸在裂缝中分布和相关敏感性参数对酸压的影响。该技术具有较好应用前景,将较好地解决高温油气层酸压酸蚀裂缝长度受限的技术难题。

压裂后压降分析的三维模型和数学拟合方法

由于现场缺乏直接测量地层和水力压裂参数的必要手段 ,因此导致了认识和了解地层、分析和评估压裂施工质量的困难。虽然地层和水力压裂参数不能直接测量 ,但油气井压裂停泵后的压力变化反映了裂缝本身及其周围地层的情况 ,因此可以利用压裂后压力测试资料来分析并求出有关参数。为逼近地下裂缝的实际情况 ,提高解释结果的准确性 ,提出了一个新的压裂后压降分析拟三维模型 ,并采用数学拟合方法计算拟合压力 ,据此可获得压裂后的压裂液滤失系数、裂缝长度、裂缝宽度、压裂液效率、裂缝闭合时间等有关评价参数。最后 ,通过计算实例说明了拟三维模型和数学拟合方法的适用性和可靠性。

油井水力压裂流-固耦合非线性有限元数值模拟

基于多孔介质流-固耦合的控制方程,推导了相应的非线性增量有限元列式,并采用以节点位移和孔隙压力为自由度的黏结单元来模拟水力损伤造成的预设裂缝的起裂和扩展,在此基础上建立了油井水力压裂的有限元模型。在该模型中考虑了压裂液的黏性系数和支撑剂的体积浓度随时间变化,所有参数均采用现场压裂的数据。通过数值模拟,得到了缝口压力、射孔孔眼摩阻、沿程摩阻、井筒内液柱静水压力和地面井口压力随压裂时间的变化规律,并给出了"压裂作业三条线",模拟得到的"压裂作业三条线"与现场压裂实测结果吻合良好。

水力压裂三维数学模型研究

根据渗流力学、岩石力学、传热学、断裂力学知识,建立了油水井三维水力压裂模拟计算的数学模型。模型考虑了压裂液的流变性、支撑剂在压裂缝中的运移、压裂液与储层岩石的热交换以及压裂过程中的流固耦合作用,给出了裂纹扩展和流固耦合计算的数值解法,通过算例验证了所提出数学模型的合理性。