Socio-Economic Implication of Nigeria Liquefied Natural Gas (NLNG) Project in Bonny Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria

Notably, the Nigeria Liquefied Natural Gas (NLNG) project is the pioneer Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plant in Nigeria, aimed at both the diversification of the petroleum industry and utilization of the vastly flared natural gas resources of the nation. However, large scale energy projects have been known to generate both positive and/or negative impacts. Environmental Management Plans (EMP) have often been the compendium of information on approved mitigations, which normally include activities that could maximize the benefits of the host communities, and it’s not unusual for the Community Development and Corporate Social Responsibility (CDCSR) department of such an organization to be saddled with these contributions. But the activities of Nigeria LNG Ltd.’s CSR department have often been the source of criticism, as well as aspiration for improvement by host communities and other stake holders. This article thus aims to present a comprehensive compendium of NLNG’s CDCSR activities, up to the year 2010, and also highlight the level of satisfaction of the immediate and distant host communities against the level of performance of other donors in the area. Also the arrays of negative socio-economic consequences of the Nigeria LNG Ltd.’s activities were identified based on community perception. The results generally showed that comparatively, NLNG project has made more innovative positive socio-economic and health contributions to its areas of operation than the three tiers of government and other donors (including SPDC and Mobil Producing Nigeria). Surprisingly, agitations against Nigeria LNG Ltd.’s activities have not overshadowed its community development provisions, which have been of major assistance in several communities. There is however a dire need to review several aspects of Nigeria LNG Ltd.’s CDCSR activities, especially in the fulfilment of documented promises, as well as in project conception and community participation, for better completed projects acceptance by indigenous host communities. Conflict management strategies also need to be improved, while the dissatisfaction over benefits in New Finima needs to be urgently addressed.

GTL or LNG:Which is the best way to monetize "stranded" natural gas?

A large portion of world＇s natural gas reserves are ＂stranded＂ resources, the drive to monetize these resources leads to the development of gas-to-liquids （GTL） and liquefied natural gas （LNG） technologies. LNG has the advantage of having been developed for the past 40 years and having an excellent safety record. GTL on the other hand is another option with substantial benefits, but its development stage and commercial viability are far behind LNG. This paper presents a techno-economic comparison of GTL with LNG, including technical development, plant efficiency, market potential for the products, and capital cost for the infrastructure. The aim is to give an overall view on both LNG and GTL and provide a perspective on the profitability of these two technologies.

Research on the navigational risk of liquefied natural gas carriers in an inland river based on entropy:A cloud evaluation model

Due to the flammability and explosive nature of liquefied natural gas(LNG),an extremely strict process is followed for the transporta-tion of LNG carriers in China.Particularly,no LNG carriers are operating in inland rivers within the country.Therefore,to ensure the future navigation safety of LNG carriers entering the Yangtze River,the risk sources of LNG carriers’navigation safety must be identi-fied and evaluated.Based on the Delphi and expert experience method,this paper analyses and discusses the navigation risk factors of LNG carriers in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River from four aspects(human,ship,environment and management),identifies 12 risk indicators affecting the navigation of LNG carriers and establishes a risk evaluation index system.Further,an entropy weight fuzzy model is utilized to reduce the influence of subjective judgement on the index weight as well as to conduct a segmented and overall evaluation of LNG navigation risks in the Baimaosha Channel.Finally,the cloud model is applied to validate the consistent feasibility of the entropy weight fuzzy model.The research results indicate that the method provides effective technical support for further study on the navigation security of LNG carriers in inland rivers.

大型LNG船用惰气发生器系统特点及其应用

为提高液化天然气(Liquefied Natural Gas,LNG)船与惰气发生器系统的匹配度,基于惰气制取流程,对不同类型惰气发生器的应用范围进行归纳,对大型LNG船用惰气发生器的系统特点、要求和布置准则进行分析,并对不同厂商惰气发生器的结构形式和性能特点进行对比。研究表明:惰气发生器的油耗、整机功率、排量等参数为大型LNG船选型的首要依据。研究成果可为大型LNG船用惰气发生器的选型与应用提供一定参考。

A型LNG罐完整次屏蔽密性试验及验收标准

为保障液化天然气(Liquefied Natural Gas,LNG)船的航运安全,对A型舱次屏壁粘接后系统孔隙度的试验方法以及不同次数的热循环对次屏壁气密性的影响进行分析。研究表明:次屏壁密性试验可有效验证次屏壁的液密性,且此屏壁密封性能在若干次初始热循环之后趋于稳定。研究成果可为A型独立LNG液舱次屏壁系统的验收提供一定参考。

A review of cryogenic power generation cycles with liquefied natural gas cold energy utilization

Liquefied natural gas （LNG）, an increasingly widely applied clean fuel, releases a large number of cold energy in its regasification process. In the present paper, the existing power generation cycles utilizing LNG cold energy are introduced and summarized. The direction of cycle improvement can be divided into the key factors affecting basic power generation cycles and the structural enhancement of cycles utilizing LNG cold energy. The former includes the effects of LNG-side parameters, working fluids, and inlet and outlet thermodynamic parameters of equipment, while the latter is based on Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle, Kalina cycle and their compound cycles. In the present paper, the diversities of cryogenic power generation cycles utilizing LNG cold energy are discussed and analyzed. It is pointed out that further researches should focus on the selection and component matching of organic mixed working fluids and the combination of process simulation and experi- mental investigation, etc.

Research on Temperature Field and Thermal Stress of Liquefied Natural Gas Carrier with Incomplete Insulation

The insulation of membrane type liquefied natural gas(LNG) carrier is composed of plywood boxes filled with perlite.Within the service period,considering of the effects of load conditions,such as sloshing,wave load,it is possible to have some damage of the plywood box,leakage of perlite,and failure of the insulation box.LNG carrier without whole protection of effective insulation is dangerous.Hull structure is extremely fragile when exposed to ultra-low temperature.In order to solve these problems,firstly a study on insulation boxes' character and work condition is carried out and some presuppositions of partial disabled insulation are put forward.Secondly the thermal system of LNG carrier is analyzed to find out an effective way to simulate the thermal action of close air between outer and inner hull.Then a calculation about temperature field and thermal stress is done by MSC/PATRAN&NASTRAN.At the end it is concluded that LNG carrier with incomplete insulation is dangerous and needs to be avoided.

Influence of Excitation Frequency on Slosh-Induced Impact Pressures of Liquefied Natural Gas Tanks

Liquid sloshing phenomena in No.2 tank of 140 km 3 liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers have been studied numerically and experimentally.The scale of the model tank was selected as 1/55.9.Roll and pitch motions were tested.For measuring impact pressures,seventeen pressure sensors were installed on the tank model.A large number of excitation frequencies and filling heights were investigated.The experimental results showed that when the frequency of tank motion is close to the natural frequency of fluid inside the tank,large impact pressures may be caused.Resonance frequencies and maximum impact pressures of different filling height were presented.Among all the experimental situations,the maximum impact pressure always occurs at the place near 70% height of tank where should be especially concerned.A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed to simulate the sloshing in the tank.The model was based on the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations,with a standard κ-ε turbulence model.The volume of fluid (VOF) method was used to predict free surface elevations.Dynamic mesh technique was used to update the volume mesh.Computations for pressure time histories and peak pressures were compared to experimental results.Good agreement was observed.

The Future of Gas to Liquids as a Gas Monetisation Option

The paper introduces gas to liquids (GTL) as a monetising option from a technology, marketing and project perspective. GTL is complementary to LNG and pipelines. At the same time, using natural gas as a source for fuels in the form of GTL helps countries around the world to diversify their energy supplies. Furthermore, gas-based products are inherently cleaner than oil products. Shell's proprietary GTL technology or SMDS (Shell Middle Distillates Synthesis), is discussed in some detail. The paper also covers the challenges for successful implementation of GTL projects and why Shell is well positioned to take a lead in the industry on the basis of its long standing and broad experience in GTL research, plant operations, marketing and excellent track record in mega projects in the last thirty years. Shell's commitment to GTL is best demonstrated by the recent signing of a Heads of Agreement with Qatar Petroleum for the construction of the world's largest GTL plant. A key success factor is Shell's experience with marketing quantities of high quality GTL products from its 12,500 barrels per day plant at Bintulu, Malaysia since 1993. Further marketing opportunities will arise when new GTL capacity comes on-stream in the middle east when more quantities will become available to bulk users. Amongst the most interesting market will be automotive transportation, where clean GTL fuels can be positioned as an 'alternative fuel beyond oil' providing energy security to host countries. Shell is actively engaging with a number of regulators, automotive companies and governments worldwide including China, to demonstrate the performance of GTL and its cost effectiveness in reducing local emissions. An added benefit is that GTL can use existing infrastructure and requires no investment. Finally, the paper briefly discusses the coal to liquids (CTL) process as an alternative route to produce high quality GTL products and the key issues relating to the process.

Technical and Economic Aspects and Experience from 6 Years of Operating the Technology Using the Waste Heat from the Exhaust Gases of Heat Sources and 3 Years of Operating a Heating Plant in an Autonomous, Island Regime

This article is focused on technical and economic evaluation of more than 6-years experiences of operating the Waste Heat Recovery technology—the manner and system of flue gas processing generated in the combustion process in heat & power plants, cogeneration units, etc., which burn the gaseous fuel, primarily natural gas, or methane, biogas, geothermal gas, or other gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen. The solution proposes a more effective and non-traditional use of gaseous fuel for heating, the flue gases of which are processed in order to extract additional utilisable heat, with potential elimination of CO2 from them. Deploying of the heating plant in an island regime (OFF-GRID) enables definition of the benefits brought by the 3 years of operational experience and presents visions for the future offering the possibility to utilise the support energy services at the municipal as well as regional level.

An Improved Combined Power System Utilizing Cold Energy of LNG

In order to improve efficiency of a combined power system in which waste heat from exhaust gas could be efficiently recovered and cold energy of liquefied natural gas(LNG) could be fully utilized as well. A system simulation and thermodynamic analysis were carried out,the Kalina cycle was reorganized by changing the concentration of "basic composition",so that a better thermal matching in the heat exchanger could be obtained and the irreversibility of the system was decreased. It was found that the Kalina cycle generally used in the bottom of combined power cycle could also be used to recover the cold energy of LNG. The results show that the exergy efficiency of 42.97% is obtained. Compared with the previous system attained the exergy efficiency of 39.76%,the improved system has a better performance.

Global LNG Trade Shifts and China's Responses

With the global energy transformation the international liquefied natural gas(LNG) market is undergoing profound changes. Due to world economic development, industrial restructuring, natural gas and alternative energy competition as well as other factors, global LNG supply and demand, LNG market structure and LNG prices will start to show new trends shortly. Hence, China, a major natural gas producer and an important LNG importer in the world,will face plenty of new opportunities and challenges in LNG imports. In response, we must take appropriate measures on industrial policies and regulations, prices and markets, etc.

Global LNG Trade Shifts and China’s Responses

With the global energy transformation the international liquefied natural gas(LNG)market is undergoing profound changes.Due to world economic development,industrial restructuring,natural gas and alternative energy competition as well as other factors,global LNG supply and demand,LNG market structure and LNG prices will start to show new trends shortly.Hence,China,a major natural gas producer and an important LNG importer in the world,will face plenty of new opportunities and challenges in LNG imports.In response,we must take appropriate measures on industrial policies and regulations,prices and markets,etc.

Coordinated Dispatch of Integrated Electricity-Natural Gas System and the Freight Railway Network

With the significant development of liquefied natural gas(LNG)rail transport,the railway system is increasingly more closely connected with the integrated electricity-natural gas system(IEGS).To coordinate the economic operations of the two systems,this paper innovatively proposes a coordinated dispatch model of IEGS with LNG infrastructures and a freight railway network with LNG transport.First,an operational scheduling model of the railway network,considering energy consumption,is put forward for both LNG transmission and ordinary freight transport.Then,the coordinated dispatch problem of IEGS and the railway network is formulated into a mixed-integer linear programming model via the big M method and a modified incremental linearization approach.Finally,a bi-level optimization algorithm based on generalized benders decomposition(GBD)is presented to solve the coordinated dispatch problem due to the restrictions on exchanging private information.Case studies demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model and algorithm as well as the potential benefit for wind power accommodation.

液化天然气池火固体火焰模型及预测工具

通过对陆上和水上LNG大尺寸火灾实验测试结果进行分析,得到影响LNG池火灾热辐射的关键参数,包括最大燃烧速率、最大表面热辐射能及LNG池火燃烧速率、表面热辐射能、火焰形状和传输率预测模型,并据此开发了基于固体火焰模型的LNG池火热辐射预测工具LNGFHR。与LNGFIRE 3模型的计算结果进行对比,表明LNGFHR在陆上圆形LNG池火灾热辐射预测值与LNGFIRE 3接近;对于水面LNG池火,LNGFHR采用了最新的大尺寸LNG水面池火实验的研究结果,其预测结果大于LNGFIRE 3模型的预测值。

大型LNG船再液化设备基座静刚度分析及结构优化

为了保证大型液化天然气(Liquefied Natural Gas, LNG)船再液化设备的基座在设备工作载荷作用下具有较高的抵抗变形能力,提高再液化设备运转过程中的安全性,以大型LNG船用再液化设备的基座所受载荷为基础,进行整个再液化设备的基座结构设计,并基于有限元分析软件进行刚度计算。计算结果表明:在工作载荷作用下,基座抵抗横向和纵向变形的能力较弱,在结构优化加强时,增加结构的板厚对整个基座的静刚度改善作用亚于增加纵向或横向支撑型材。研究结果可为船舶类设备基座结构的设计及加强优化提供一定参考。

LNG动力船舶修理安全管控

为了提升液化天然气(Liquefied Natural Gas, LNG)动力船舶修理期间的风险管控水平,对LNG燃料的基本特性展开介绍,分析LNG泄漏或失控所造成的危害,并对不同的LNG动力船舶系统的相应维修情况进行对比分析,同时阐述LNG动力船舶维修时存在的主要额外风险及相应风险产生的原因。在此基础上,提出船舶携带LNG修理期间在危险区域和安全敏感区域工作的相应预防措施。研究成果可为LNG动力船舶修理安全管控提供一定参考。

邮轮上固体氧化物燃料电池装置的案例研究

The work is a case study of a cruise ship supplied by liquefied natural gas(LNG)and equipped with a solid oxide fuel cell(SOFC).It is supposed that a 20 MW SOFC plant is installed on-board to supply hotel loads and assisting three dual-fuel(DF)diesel/LNG generator sets.LNG consumption and emissions are estimated both for the SOFC plant and DF generator sets.It results that the use of LNG-SOFC plant in comparison to DF generator sets allows to limit significantly the SO_(x),CO,NO_(x),PM emissions and to reduce the emission of CO_(2)by about 11%.A prediction of the weight and volume of the SOFC plant is conducted and a preliminary modification of the general arrangement of the cruise ship is suggested,according to the latest international rules.It results that the SOFC plant is heavier and occupies more volume on board than a DF gen-set;nevertheless,these features do not affect the floating and the stability of the cruise ship.

Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Flux in an Urban Residential Area in Seoul,Korea

The carbon dioxide （CO2） concentrations and fluxes measured at a height of 17.5 m above the ground by a sonic anemometer and an open-path gas analyzer at an urban residential site in Seoul, Korea from February 2011 to January 2012 were analyzed. The annual mean CO2 concentration was found to be 750 mg m-3, with a maximum monthly mean concentration of 827 mg m-3 in January and a minimum value of 679 mg m-3 in August. Meanwhile, the annual mean CO2 flux was found to be 0.45 mg m-2 s-1, with a maximum monthly mean flux of 0.91 mg m-2 s-1 in January and a minimum value of 0.19 mg m-2 s-1 in June. The hourly mean CO2 concentration was found to show a significant diurnal variation; a maximum at 0700-0900 LST and a minimum at 1400-1600 LST, with a large diurnal range in winter and a small one in summer, mainly caused by diurnal changes in mixing height, CO2 flux, and surface complexity. The hourly mean CO2 flux was also found to show a significant diurnal variation, but it showed two maxima at 0700-0900 LST and 2100-2400 LST, and two minima at 1100-1500 LST and 0300-0500 LST, mainly caused by a diurnal pattern in CO2 emissions and sinks from road traffic, domestic heating and cooking by liquefied natural gas use, and the different horizontal distribution of CO2 sources and sinks near the site. Differential advection with respect to wind direction was also found to be a cause of diurnal variations in both the CO2 concentration and flux.

Characteristics of Bi-2223 HTS Tapes Under Short-Circuit Current Impacts in Hybrid Energy Transmission Pipelines

A hybrid energy transmission pipeline is proposed with the aim of long-distance cooperative transmission of electricity and chemical fuels, which is composed of an inner high-temperature superconducting (HTS) power cable and outer liquefied natural gas (LNG) pipeline. The flowing LNG could maintain the operating temperature of the inner HTS power cable within the range of 85 K-90 K, thus the Bi-2223 superconductors in the HTS power cable produce little Joule loss with the transmission current below the critical current. Owing to the advantages of high power density, low transmission losses and economical manufacturing costs, the hybrid energy transmission pipeline is expected to be widely utilized in the near future. In order to ensure the safety of the HTS power cable and explosive LNG in case of short-circuit faults, this paper tests and analyzes the characteristics of Bi-2223 HTS tapes of the Type HT-CA, Type HT-SS and Type H models under short-circuit current impacts at the LNG cooling temperature (85 K-90 K). An experimental platform is designed and established for the ampacity tests of HTS tapes above LN2 cooling temperature (77 K). The AC over-current impact tests at 85 K-90 K are carried out on each sample of Bi-2223 tapes respectively, and the experimental results are analyzed and compared to evaluate their performances under different operating conditions. The results indicate that the Type HT-CA tape can withstand 50 Hz short-circuit current impact with the amplitude of 1108 A (10 times of critical current Ic ) for 100 ms at 90 K, and its resistance is the smallest of the three tested samples under similar current impacts. Therefore, the Type HT-CA Bi-2223 tape is the optimal superconductor of the HTS power cable in the hybrid energy transmission pipeline.