Managing the surge:A comprehensive review of the entire disposal framework for retired lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles

Anticipating the imminent surge of retired lithium-ion batteries(R-LIBs)from electric vehicles,the need for safe,cost-effective and environmentally friendly disposal technologies has escalated.This paper seeks to offer a comprehensive overview of the entire disposal framework for R-LIBs,encompassing a broad spectrum of activities,including screening,repurposing and recycling.Firstly,we delve deeply into a thorough examination of current screening technologies,shifting the focus from a mere enumeration of screening methods to the exploration of the strategies for enhancing screening efficiency.Secondly,we outline battery repurposing with associated key factors,summarizing stationary applications and sizing methods for R-LIBs in their second life.A particular light is shed on available reconditioning solutions,demonstrating their great potential in facilitating battery safety and lifetime in repurposing scenarios and identifying their techno-economic issues.In the realm of battery recycling,we present an extensive survey of pre-treatment options and subsequent material recovery technologies.Particularly,we introduce several global leading recyclers to illustrate their industrial processes and technical intricacies.Furthermore,relevant challenges and evolving trends are investigated in pursuit of a sustainable end-of-life management and disposal framework.We hope that this study can serve as a valuable resource for researchers,industry professionals and policymakers in this field,ultimately facilitating the adoption of proper disposal practices.

Adaptive battery thermal management systems in unsteady thermal application contexts

With the increasing attention paid to battery technology,the microscopic reaction mechanism and macroscopic heat transfer process of lithium-ion batteries have been further studied and understood from both academic and industrial perspectives.Temperature,as one of the key parameters in the physical fra mework of batteries,affects the performa nce of the multi-physical fields within the battery,a nd its effective control is crucial.Since the heat generation in the battery is determined by the real-time operating conditions,the battery temperature is essentially controlled by the real-time heat dissipation conditions provided by the battery thermal management system.Conventional battery thermal management systems have basic temperature control capabilities for most conventional application scenarios.However,with the current development of la rge-scale,integrated,and intelligent battery technology,the adva ncement of battery thermal management technology will pay more attention to the effective control of battery temperature under sophisticated situations,such as high power and widely varied operating conditions.In this context,this paper presents the latest advances and representative research related to battery thermal management system.Firstly,starting from battery thermal profile,the mechanism of battery heat generation is discussed in detail.Secondly,the static characteristics of the traditional battery thermal management system are summarized.Then,considering the dynamic requirements of battery heat dissipation under complex operating conditions,the concept of adaptive battery thermal management system is proposed based on specific research cases.Finally,the main challenges for battery thermal management system in practice are identified,and potential future developments to overcome these challenges are presented and discussed.

Design and management of lithium-ion batteries:A perspective from modeling,simulation,and optimization

Although the lithium-ion batteries(LIBs) have been increasingly applied in consumer electronics, electric vehicles,and smart grid, they still face great challenges from the continuously improving requirements of energy density, power density, service life, and safety. To solve these issues, various studies have been conducted surrounding the battery design and management methods in recent decades. In the hope of providing some inspirations to the research in this field, the state of the art of design and management methods for LIBs are reviewed here from the perspective of process systems engineering. First, different types of battery models are summarized extensively, including electrical model and multi-physics coupled model, and the parameter identification methods are introduced correspondingly. Next, the model based battery design methods are reviewed briefly on three different scales, namely, electrode scale, cell scale, and pack scale. Then, the battery model based battery management methods, especially the state estimation methods with different model types are thoroughly compared. The key science and technology challenges for the development of battery systems engineering are clarified finally.

Design and parametric optimization of thermal management of lithium-ion battery module with reciprocating air-flow

Single cell temperature difference of lithium-ion battery(LIB) module will significantly affect the safety and cycle life of the battery. The reciprocating air-flow module created by a periodic reversal of the air flow was investigated in an effort to mitigate the inherent temperature gradient problem of the conventional battery system with a unidirectional coolant flow with computational fluid dynamics(CFD). Orthogonal experiment and optimization design method based on computational fluid dynamics virtual experiments were developed. A set of optimized design factors for the cooling of reciprocating air flow of LIB thermal management was determined. The simulation experiments show that the reciprocating flow can achieve good heat dissipation, reduce the temperature difference, improve the temperature homogeneity and effectively lower the maximal temperature of the modular battery. The reciprocating flow improves the safety, long-term performance and life span of LIB.

Thermal Management of Air-Cooling Lithium-Ion Battery Pack

Lithium-ion battery packs are made by many batteries, and the difficulty in heat transfer can cause many safety issues. It is important to evaluate thermal performance of a battery pack in designing process. Here, a multiscale method combining a pseudo-two-dimensional model of individual battery and three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics is employed to describe heat generation and transfer in a battery pack. The effect of battery arrangement on the thermal performance of battery packs is investigated. We discuss the air-cooling effect of the pack with four battery arrangements which include one square arrangement, one stagger arrangement and two trapezoid arrangements. In addition, the air-cooling strategy is studied by observing temperature distribution of the battery pack. It is found that the square arrangement is the structure with the best air-cooling effect, and the cooling effect is best when the cold air inlet is at the top of the battery pack. We hope that this work can provide theoretical guidance for thermal management of lithium-ion battery packs.

State of Health Estimation of LiFePO_(4) Batteries for Battery Management Systems

When considering the mechanism of the batteries,the capacity reduction at storage(when not in use)and cycling(during use)and increase of internal resistance is because of degradation in the chemical composition inside the batteries.To optimize battery usage,a battery management system(BMS)is used to estimate possible aging effects while different load profiles are requested from the grid.This is specifically seen in a case when the vehicle is connected to the net(online through BMS).During this process,the BMS chooses the optimized load profiles based on the least aging effects on the battery pack.The major focus of this paper is to design an algorithm/model for lithium iron phosphate(LiFePO4)batteries.The model of the batteries is based on the accelerated aging test data(data from the beginning of life till the end of life).The objective is to develop an algorithm based on the actual battery trend during the whole life of the battery.By the analysis of the test data,the complete trend of the battery aging and the factors on which the aging is depending on is identified,the aging model can then be recalibrated to avoid any differences in the production process during cell manufacturing.The validation of the model was carried out at the end by utilizing different driving profiles at different C-rates and different ambient temperatures.A Linear and non-linear model-based approach is used based on statistical data.The parameterization was carried out by dividing the data into small chunks and estimating the parameters for the individual chunks.Self-adaptive characteristic map using a lookup table was also used.The nonlinear model was chosen as the best candidate among all other approaches for longer validation of 8-month data with real driving data set.

A review of data-driven whole-life state of health prediction for lithium-ion batteries:Data preprocessing,aging characteristics,algorithms,and future challenges

Lithium-ion batteries are the preferred green energy storage method and are equipped with intelligent battery management systems(BMSs)that efficiently manage the batteries.This not only ensures the safety performance of the batteries but also significantly improves their efficiency and reduces their damage rate.Throughout their whole life cycle,lithium-ion batteries undergo aging and performance degradation due to diverse external environments and irregular degradation of internal materials.This degradation is reflected in the state of health(SOH)assessment.Therefore,this review offers the first comprehensive analysis of battery SOH estimation strategies across the entire lifecycle over the past five years,highlighting common research focuses rooted in data-driven methods.It delves into various dimensions such as dataset integration and preprocessing,health feature parameter extraction,and the construction of SOH estimation models.These approaches unearth hidden insights within data,addressing the inherent tension between computational complexity and estimation accuracy.To enha nce support for in-vehicle implementation,cloud computing,and the echelon technologies of battery recycling,remanufacturing,and reuse,as well as to offer insights into these technologies,a segmented management approach will be introduced in the future.This will encompass source domain data processing,multi-feature factor reconfiguration,hybrid drive modeling,parameter correction mechanisms,and fulltime health management.Based on the best SOH estimation outcomes,health strategies tailored to different stages can be devised in the future,leading to the establishment of a comprehensive SOH assessment framework.This will mitigate cross-domain distribution disparities and facilitate adaptation to a broader array of dynamic operation protocols.This article reviews the current research landscape from four perspectives and discusses the challenges that lie ahead.Researchers and practitioners can gain a comprehensive understanding of battery SOH estimation methods,offering valuable insights for the development of advanced battery management systems and embedded application research.

Review on Lithium-ion Battery PHM from the Perspective of Key PHM Steps

Prognostics and health management(PHM)has gotten considerable attention in the background of Industry 4.0.Battery PHM contributes to the reliable and safe operation of electric devices.Nevertheless,relevant reviews are still continuously updated over time.In this paper,we browsed extensive literature related to battery PHM from 2018to 2023 and summarized advances in battery PHM field,including battery testing and public datasets,fault diagnosis and prediction methods,health status estimation and health management methods.The last topic includes state of health estimation methods,remaining useful life prediction methods and predictive maintenance methods.Each of these categories is introduced and discussed in details.Based on this survey,we accordingly discuss challenges left to battery PHM,and provide future research opportunities.This research systematically reviews recent research about battery PHM from the perspective of key PHM steps and provide some valuable prospects for researchers and practitioners.

Critical review and functional safety of a battery management system for large‑scale lithium‑ion battery pack technologies

The battery management system(BMS)is the main safeguard of a battery system for electric propulsion and machine electrifcation.It is tasked to ensure reliable and safe operation of battery cells connected to provide high currents at high voltage levels.In addition to efectively monitoring all the electrical parameters of a battery pack system,such as the voltage,current,and temperature,the BMS is also used to improve the battery performance with proper safety measures within the system.With growing acceptance of lithium-ion batteries,major industry sectors such as the automotive,renewable energy,manufacturing,construction,and even some in the mining industry have brought forward the mass transition from fossil fuel dependency to electric powered machinery and redefned the world of energy storage.Hence,the functional safety considerations,which are those relating to automatic protection,in battery management for battery pack technologies are particularly important to ensure that the overall electrical system,regardless of whether it is for electric transportation or stationary energy storage,is in accordance with high standards of safety,reliability,and quality.If the system or product fails to meet functional and other safety requirements on account of faulty design or a sequence of failure events,then the environment,people,and property could be endangered.This paper analyzed the details of BMS for electric transportation and large-scale energy storage systems,particularly in areas concerned with hazardous environment.The analysis covers the aspect of functional safety that applies to BMS and is in accordance with the relevant industrial standards.A comprehensive evaluation of the components,architecture,risk reduction techniques,and failure mode analysis applicable to BMS operation was also presented.The article further provided recommendations on safety design and performance optimization in relation to the overall BMS integration.

Battery prognostics and health management for electric vehicles under industry 4.0

Transportation electrification is essential for decarbonizing transport. Currently, lithium-ion batteries are the primary power source for electric vehicles (EVs). However, there is still a significant journey ahead before EVs can establish themselves as the dominant force in the global automotive market. Concerns such as range anxiety, battery aging, and safety issues remain significant challenges.

Applications of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Grid-Scale Energy Storage Systems

In the electrical energy transformation process,the grid-level energy storage system plays an essential role in balancing power generation and utilization.Batteries have considerable potential for application to grid-level energy storage systems because of their rapid response,modularization,and flexible installation.Among several battery technologies,lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)exhibit high energy efficiency,long cycle life,and relatively high energy density.In this perspective,the properties of LIBs,including their operation mechanism,battery design and construction,and advantages and disadvantages,have been analyzed in detail.Moreover,the performance of LIBs applied to grid-level energy storage systems is analyzed in terms of the following grid services:(1)frequency regulation;(2)peak shifting;(3)integration with renewable energy sources;and(4)power management.In addition,the challenges encountered in the application of LIBs are discussed and possible research directions aimed at overcoming these challenges are proposed to provide insight into the development of grid-level energy storage systems.

Physics-based battery SOC estimation methods:Recent advances and future perspectives

The reliable prediction of state of charge(SOC)is one of the vital functions of advanced battery management system(BMS),which has great significance towards safe operation of electric vehicles.By far,the empirical model-based and data-driven-based SOC estimation methods of lithium-ion batteries have been comprehensively discussed and reviewed in various literatures.However,few reviews involving SOC estimation focused on electrochemical mechanism,which gives physical explanations to SOC and becomes most attractive candidate for advanced BMS.For this reason,this paper comprehensively surveys on physics-based SOC algorithms applied in advanced BMS.First,the research progresses of physical SOC estimation methods for lithium-ion batteries are thoroughly discussed and corresponding evaluation criteria are carefully elaborated.Second,future perspectives of the current researches on physics-based battery SOC estimation are presented.The insights stated in this paper are expected to catalyze the development and application of the physics-based advanced BMS algorithms.

Passive battery thermal management and thermal safety protection based on hydrated salt composite phase change materials

Lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)are progressing towards higher energy densities,extended lifespans,and improved safety.However,battery thermal management systems are facing increased demand owing to high-rate charging and discharging,dynamic operating conditions,and heightened thermal safety concerns.Therefore,this paper proposes a novel composite phase change material(CPCM)comprising Na2SO4–10H2O as the core phase change material(PCM)and expanded graphite as the thermal conductivity enhancer.The CPCM offers high latent heat,superior thermal conductivity,and a two-stage temperature control function for battery thermal management and safety.The optimal mass CPCM ratio,determined through comprehensive characterization and thermal property tests,resulted in a melting point of 29.05℃,latent heat of 183.7 J·g^(-1),and high thermal conductivity of 3.926 W·m^(-1)·K^(-1).During normal LIB operations,the CPCM efficiently absorbs and transfers heat,reducing the peak LIB temperature from 66 to 34℃at 15℃ambient temperature during a 3.7C high-rate discharge.Under dynamic conditions,the peak temperatures across the three cycles were consistently controlled at 36.7,36.4,and 35.8℃,respectively.In a thermal runaway state,the thermochemical heat storage of hydrated salt dehydration effectively slowed LIB temperature increase,delaying the time to reach 130℃by 187 s.Suppression of the temperature rise outside the CPCM,combined with an extended dehydration plateau of up to 320 s,prevented the occurrence and propagation of thermal runaway in the battery.

A Review on Lithium-ion Power Battery Thermal Management Technologies and Thermal Safety

Lithium-ion power battery has become one of the main power sources for electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles because of superior performance compared with other power sources. In order to ensure the safety and improve the performance, the maximum operating temperature and local temperature difference of batteries must be maintained in an appropriate range. The effect of temperature on the capacity fade and aging are simply investigated. The electrode structure, including electrode thickness, particle size and porosity, are analyzed. It is found that all of them have significant influences on the heat generation of battery. Details of various thermal management technologies, namely air based, phase change material based, heat pipe based and liquid based, are discussed and compared from the perspective of improving the external heat dissipation. The selection of different battery thermal management(BTM) technologies should be based on the cooling demand and applications, and liquid cooling is suggested being the most suitable method for large-scale battery pack charged/discharged at higher C-rate and in high-temperature environment. The thermal safety in the respect of propagation and suppression of thermal runaway is analyzed.

Challenges and recent progress in thermal management with heat pipes for lithium-ion power batteries in electric vehicles

Electric vehicles(EVs)are globally undergoing rapid developments,and have great potentials to replace the traditional vehicles based on fossil fuels.Power-type lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)have been widely used for EVs,owing to high power densities,good charge/discharge stability,and long cycle life.The driving ranges and acceleration performances are gaining increasing concerns from customers,which depend highly on the power level of LIBs.With the increase in power outputs,rising heat generation significantly affects the battery performances,and in particular operation safety.Meanwhile,the cold-start performance is still an intractable problem under extreme conditions.These challenges put forward higher requirements for a dedicated battery thermal management system(BTMS).Compared to traditional BTMSs in EVs,the heat pipe-based BTMS has great application prospects owing to its compact structure,flexibility,low cost,and especially high thermal conductivity.Encompassing this topic,this review first introduces heat generation phenomena and temperature characteristics of LIBs.Multiple abuse conditions and thermal runaway issues are described afterward.Typical cooling and preheating methods for designing a BTMS are also discussed.More emphasis on this review is put on the use of various heat pipes for BTMSs to enhance the thermal performances of LIBs.For lack of wide application in actual EVs,more efforts should be made to extend the use of heat pipes for constructing an energy-efficient,cost-effective,and reliable BTMS to improve the performances and safety of EVs.

Experimental Investigation on Pouch Lithium-ion Battery Thermal Management with Mini-Channels Cooling Plate Based on Heat Generation Characteristic

An electrochemical thermal coupling model of lithium battery was established to study the heat generation characteristic in this study.The simulation results showed that the heat generation density of the battery increased with the discharge rate.With the discharge process,the heat generation density of the battery increased continuously.With 2.5C discharge rate,the heat generation density at the end of discharge was 1.82 times of that at the beginning of discharge.The heat generation density at different areas of the battery was not uniform and 46%of the total ohmic heat was generated near the electrode tabs.A cooling plate with variable mini-channels was designed to improve the temperature non-uniformity caused by the heat generation characteristic.A cooling plate with uniform mini-channels was designed for compared experiment.The experiments were conducted with deionized water and refrigerant R141b and carried out with 1.5C,2C and 2.5C discharge rates.Experimental results showed that the cooling plate with variable mini-channels had a better cooling performance in both single-phase and two-phase cooling conditions.

Boosting battery state of health estimation based on self-supervised learning

State of health(SoH) estimation plays a key role in smart battery health prognostic and management.However,poor generalization,lack of labeled data,and unused measurements during aging are still major challenges to accurate SoH estimation.Toward this end,this paper proposes a self-supervised learning framework to boost the performance of battery SoH estimation.Different from traditional data-driven methods which rely on a considerable training dataset obtained from numerous battery cells,the proposed method achieves accurate and robust estimations using limited labeled data.A filter-based data preprocessing technique,which enables the extraction of partial capacity-voltage curves under dynamic charging profiles,is applied at first.Unsupervised learning is then used to learn the aging characteristics from the unlabeled data through an auto-encoder-decoder.The learned network parameters are transferred to the downstream SoH estimation task and are fine-tuned with very few sparsely labeled data,which boosts the performance of the estimation framework.The proposed method has been validated under different battery chemistries,formats,operating conditions,and ambient.The estimation accuracy can be guaranteed by using only three labeled data from the initial 20% life cycles,with overall errors less than 1.14% and error distribution of all testing scenarios maintaining less than 4%,and robustness increases with aging.Comparisons with other pure supervised machine learning methods demonstrate the superiority of the proposed method.This simple and data-efficient estimation framework is promising in real-world applications under a variety of scenarios.

Thermal Management Optimization of a Lithium-Ion Battery Module with Graphite Sheet Fins and Liquid Cold Plates

Temperature uniformity of lithium-ion batteries and maintaining the temperature within the range for efficient operation are addressed.First,Liquid cold plates are placed on the sides of a prismatic battery,and fins made of aluminum alloy or graphite sheets are applied between battery cells to improve the heat transfer performance.Then a simulation model is built with 70 battery cells and 6 liquid cold plates,and the performance is analyzed according to the flow rate,liquid temperature,and discharge rate.Finally,the results show that temperature differences are mainly caused by the liquid cold plates.The fin surface determines the equivalent thermal conductivity of the battery.The graphite sheets have heterogeneous thermal conductivity,which help improve temperature uniformity and reduce the temperature gradient.With lower density than the aluminum alloy,they offer a lower gravimetric power density for the same heat transfer capacity.In addition to the equivalent thermal conductivity,the temperature difference between the cooling liquid and battery surface is an important parameter for temperature uniformity.Optimizing the fin thickness is found to be an effective way to reduce the temperature difference between the liquid and battery during cooling and improve the temperature uniformity.

Graphene oxide-lithium-ion batteries:inauguration of an era in energy storage technology

A significant driving force behind the brisk research on rechargeable batteries,particularly lithium-ion batteries(LiBs)in high-performance applications,is the development of portable devices and electric vehicles.Carbon-based materials,which have finite specific capacity,make up the anodes of LiBs.Many attempts are being made to produce novel nanostructured composite anode materials for LiBs that display cycle stability that is superior to that of graphite using graphene oxide.Therefore,using significant amounts of waste graphene oxide from used LiBs represents a fantastic opportunity to engage in waste management and circular economy.This review outlines recent studies,developments and the current advancement of graphene oxide-based LiBs,including preparation of graphene oxide and utilization in LiBs,particularly from the perspective of energy storage technology,which has drawn more and more attention to creating high-performance electrode systems.

Review of prevention and mitigation technologies for thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries have been widely used in transportation,power equipment,aerospace,and other fields.However,the complex electrochemical reactions inside the battery cause excessive heat generation rate due to thermal,mechanical,and electrical abuse conditions,and even lead to thermal runaway.The problem of thermal runaway has become an important factor limiting its use.This review summarizes the intrinsic safety of batteries,thermal management,early monitoring and warning for thermal runaway,fire prevention and fire suppression technologies.The intrinsic safety technologies were summarized from the aspects of electrolyte flame retardancy,improvement of thermal stability of battery materials,and ceramic separators.To effectively control battery temperature,thermal management technologies were elaborated from the perspectives of air cooling,liquid cooling,heat pipes,phase change materials,and coupled thermal management.Single parameter detection,multi parameter composite detection,and new detection technologies were also discussed.In-situ monitoring of batteries based on fiber optic sensors helps to achieve early warning of thermal runaway.After thermal runaway occurs,fire prevention and fire extinguishing technology can effectively reduce the harm of thermal runaway,which should be given sufficient attention.This work provides important references value and research ideas for the prevention and mitigation of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries.