Effects of site conditions on earthquake ground motion and their applications in seismic design in loess region

The Loess Plateau is an earthquake prone region of China, where the effects of loess deposit on ground motion were discovered during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake(Ms8.0) and the 2013 Minxian-Zhangxian earthquake(Ms6.6). The field investigations, observations, and analyses indicated that large number of casualties and tremendous economic losses were caused not only by collapse and damage of houses with poor seismic performance, landslides, but also amplification effects of site conditions, topography and thickness of loess deposit, on ground motion. In this paper, we chose Dazhai Village and Majiagou Village as the typical loess site affected by the two earthquakes for intensity evaluation, borehole exploration, temporary strong motion array, micro tremor survey, and numerical analysis. The aim is to explore the relations between amplification factors and site conditions in terms of topography and thickness of loess deposit. We also developed site amplification factors of ground motion for engineering design consideration at loess sites. The results showed that the amplification effects are more predominant with increase in thickness of loess deposit and slope height. The amplification mayincrease seismic intensity by 1 degree, PGA and predominant period by 2 times, respectively.

Ground Motion and Site Effects on Performance-Based Design

The objective of Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering （PBEE） is the analysis of performance objectives with a specified annual probability of exceedance. Increasingly undesirable performance is caused by increasing levels of strong ground motion having decreasing annual probabilities of exceedance. The development of this methodology includes three steps： （1） evaluation of the distribution of ground motion at a site; （2） evaluation of the distribution of system response; （3） evaluation of the probability of exceeding decision variables within a given time period, given appropriate damage measures. The work has taken a systematic approach to determine the impact of increasing levels of detail in site characterization on the accuracy of ground motion and site effects predictions. Complementary studies have investigated the use of the following models for evaluating site effects： （1） amplification factors defined on the basis of generalized site categories, （2） one-dimensional ground response analysis, and （3） two-dimensional ground response analysis for surface topography on ground motion. The paper provides a brief synthesis of ground motion and site effects analysis procedures within a Performance-Based Design framework. It focuses about the influence on the evaluation of site effects in some active regions by different shear waves velocity measurements Down Hole （D-H）, Cross Hole （C-H）, Seismic Dilatometer Marchetti Test （SDMT） and by different variation of shear modulus and damping ratio with strain level and depth from different laboratory dynamic tests for soil characterization： Resonant Column Test （RCT）, Cyclic Loading Torsional Shear Test （CLTST）.

Site dependence of far-source ground motions during the Wenchuan earthquake

This paper aimed to examine the site dependence and evaluate the methods for site analysis of far-source ground motions. This was achieved through the examination of frequency content estimated by different methods based on strong ground motions recorded at twelve far-source stations in Shandong province during the Wenchuan earthquake. The stations were located in sites with soil profiles ranging from code classes Ⅰ to Ⅲ. Approaches used included the Fourier amplitude spectrum （FAS）, the earthquake response spectrum （ERS）, the spectral ratio between the horizontal and the vertical components （H/V）, the spectral ratio between the spectra at the site and at a reference site （SRRS）, and coda wave analysis （CWA）. Results showed that major periods of these ground motions obtained by FAS, ERS and H/V ratio methods were all evidently larger than site dominant periods; the periods were also different from each other and mainly reflected the frequency content of long period components. Prominent periods obtained by the SRRS approach neither illuminated the long period aspect nor efficiently determined site features of the motions. The CWA resulted in a period close to site period for stations with good quality recordings. The results obtained in this study will be useful for the evaluation of far-source effect in constructing seismic design spectra and in selecting methods for ground motion site analysis.

Influence of earthquake ground motion incoherency on multi-support structures

A linear response history analysis method is used to determine the influence of three factors:geometric incoherency,wave-passage,and local site characteristics on the response of lnulti-support structures subjected to differential ground motions.A one-span frame and a reduced model of a 24-span bridge,located in Las Vegas,Nevada are studied,in which the influence of each of the three factors and their combinations are analyzed.It is revealed that the incoherency of earthquake ground motion can have a dramatic influence on structural response by modifying the dynamics response to uniform excitation and inducing pseudo-static response,which does not exist in structures subjected to uniform excitation.The total response when all three sources of ground motion incoherency are included is generally larger than that of uniform excitation.

Simulation of spatially correlated earthquake ground motions for engineering purposes

A new model to simulate spatially correlated earthquake ground motions is developed. In the model, the main factors that characterize three distinct effects of spatial variability, namely, the incoherency effect, the wave-passage effect and the site-response effect, are taken into account, and corresponding terms/parameters are incorporated into the well known model of uniform ground motions. Some of these terms/parameters can be determined by the root operation, and others can be calculated directly. The proposed model is first verified theoretically, and examples of ground motion simulations are provided as a further illustration. It is proven that the ensemble expected value and the ensemble auto-/cross-spectral density functions of the simulated ground motions are identical to the target spectral density functions. The proposed model can also be used to simulate other correlated stochastic processes, such as wave and wind loads.

Spatial-temporal characterization of the San Andreas Fault by fault-zone trapped waves at seismic experiment site,Parkfield,California

In this article,we review our previous research for spatial and temporal characterizations of the San Andreas Fault(SAF)at Parkfield,using the fault-zone trapped wave(FZTW)since the middle 1980s.Parkfield,California has been taken as a scientific seismic experimental site in the USA since the 1970s,and the SAF is the target fault to investigate earthquake physics and forecasting.More than ten types of field experiments(including seismic,geophysical,geochemical,geodetic and so on)have been carried out at this experimental site since then.In the fall of 2003,a pair of scientific wells were drilled at the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth(SAFOD)site;the main-hole(MH)passed a~200-m-wide low-velocity zone(LVZ)with highly fractured rocks of the SAF at a depth of~3.2 km below the wellhead on the ground level(Hickman et al.,2005;Zoback,2007;Lockner et al.,2011).Borehole seismographs were installed in the SAFOD MH in 2004,which were located within the LVZ of the fault at~3-km depth to probe the internal structure and physical properties of the SAF.On September 282004,a M6 earthquake occurred~15 km southeast of the town of Parkfield.The data recorded in the field experiments before and after the 2004 M6 earthquake provided a unique opportunity to monitor the co-mainshock damage and post-seismic heal of the SAF associated with this strong earthquake.This retrospective review of the results from a sequence of our previous experiments at the Parkfield SAF,California,will be valuable for other researchers who are carrying out seismic experiments at the active faults to develop the community seismic wave velocity models,the fault models and the earthquake forecasting models in global seismogenic regions.

Site effects on earthquake ground motion based on microtremor measurements for metropolitan Beijing

A campaign of microtremor measurements was conducted in summer 2007 for assessing local site effects of seismic strong ground motion in metropolitan Beijing. Using the measurements from over 600 sites with approximately 1―2 km spacing covering the entire area inside Beijing’s 5th Beltway, we present the analysis results in the form of contours of the predominant resonant frequency, the thick- ness of the uppermost soft sediments, and the ground motion amplification factor. The microtremor- derived soft sediment thickness is generally in agreement with previous results based on much sparser borehole data, with the revealing of more short-wavelength undulations, which coincide with major geomorphological and neotectonic expressions in metropolitan Beijing. This study provides additional valuable information to the earthquake-resistant design of civil infrastructures and seismic hazard response in metropolitan Beijing. It also provides a feasible geophysical approaching to explore the 3-D structure beneath metropolitan cities.

基于HVSR的DONET1海底地震动场地效应研究

为基于谱比方法研究海底地震动场地效应,选取日本DONET1台网的20个海底台站2014-2021年记录的1634组地震数据,对其进行筛选和处理后,利用水平与竖向谱比(HVSR)方法考虑不同布设对海底5组节点台站(KMA、KMB、KMC、KMD、KME)谱比特征的影响。研究结果表明:KMA与KME节点台站具有相似的场地特征,KMB与KMD节点台站分散布置在2种场地,KMC节点台站场地与其他节点均不相似,这与长期地质调查结果相似;海底台站谱比曲线呈多峰值现象,其中KMB、KMC、KMD分组台站利用HVSR方法识别的主频变异性较高,KMA、KME分组台站主频较稳定;相同地形条件下,布设方式相同的海底台站谱比曲线随频率分布相似,海底复杂场地条件下,采用装沙沉底方式布置的台站识别场地条件时出现偏差;海底复杂因素对掩埋沉箱方式布设的台站谱比曲线的影响主要集中在频率<5 Hz的低频处;海底复杂因素对未埋入海底台站谱比曲线的影响主要集中在频率为5-10 Hz的高频处。研究结果可为海底地震动场地效应研究提供参考。

Response of a transmission tower-line system at a canyon site to spatially varying ground motions

Collapses of transmission towers were often observed in previous large earthquakes such as the Chi-Chi earthquake in Taiwan and Wenchuan earthquake in Sichuan,China. These collapses were partially caused by the pulling forces from the transmission lines generated from out-of-phase responses of the adjacent towers owing to spatially varying earthquake ground motions. In this paper,a 3D finite element model of the transmission tower-line system is established considering the geometric nonlinearity of transmission lines. The nonlinear responses of the structural system at a canyon site are analyzed subjected to spatially varying ground motions. The spatial variations of ground motion associated with the wave passage,coherency loss,and local site effects are given. The spatially varying ground motions are simulated stochastically based on an empirical coherency loss function and a filtered Tajimi-Kanai power spectral density function. The site effect is considered by a transfer function derived from 1D wave propagation theory. Compared with structural responses calculated using the uniform ground motion and delayed excitations,numerical results indicate that seismic responses of transmission towers and power lines are amplified when considering spatially varying ground motions including site effects. Each factor of ground motion spatial variations has a significant effect on the seismic response of the structure,especially for the local site effect. Therefore,neglecting the earthquake ground motion spatial variations may lead to a substantial underestimation of the response of transmission tower-line system during strong earthquakes. Each effect of ground motion spatial variations should be incorporated in seismic analysis of the structural system.

岩溶区土洞对自由场地震动放大效应的影响

岩溶区土洞的发育改变了自由场的地震工程地质条件,从而影响了地表地震动力响应结果。为探讨岩溶区土洞对地震动场地效应的影响,设计并构建典型岩溶区土洞自由场地,利用有限差分法开展了不同地震动输入条件下的含土洞场地的地震反应分析。通过与自由场地震反应分析结果对比可知:(1)土洞的存在阻碍了地震波的传播,从而使得地表中心点峰值加速度显著减小,随着输入地震动峰值增大,土洞的影响范围增大,土洞附近地表峰值加速度呈现出先增大后减小,最后逐渐趋向于自由场;(2)土洞的存在使场地的竖向位移增大,且随输入加速度峰值增大而增大、对水平向峰值位移影响较小;(3)加速度放大系数总体呈现出先增大后减小的趋势,随输入加速度峰值增大而减小;(4)土洞的存在使得反应谱的短周期幅值减小,这种减小幅度受输入地震动峰值的影响不明显。

基于KiK-net强震动记录的加速度反应谱规律性偏差

地震动特性受到地震震源、地震波传播介质和局部场地条件等因素的综合影响,虽然地震动反应谱虽然具有统计意义上的共性,但其具体形状又各不相同,特别是部分加速度反应谱与统计平均值之间存在显著的规律性偏差。为了进一步探究加速度反应谱与统计平均值之间的规律性偏差,本文基于日本KiK-net台网获取的8万余条强震动记录,建立了考虑地震震级和震中距影响的地面峰值加速度归一化加速度反应谱,并以预测值+0.5倍方差为界将加速度反应谱分为有、无反应谱规律性偏差的两组。通过有反应谱规律性偏差的反应谱(观测值)与无反应谱规律性偏差的反应谱预测值之间的差值,析出了反应谱的规律性偏差,验证了反应谱规律性偏差的形状与高斯曲线高度吻合,并可用加速度反应谱规律性偏差曲线的中心周期、相对高度和相对宽度等参数进行表征。基于2万余条有反应谱规律性偏差记录的统计分析显示,加速度反应谱规律性偏差主要受控于剪切波速、覆盖层厚度等局部场地条件表征参数,受地震震级、震中距、地震动强度等参数的影响相对较小。基于此,利用多元线性回归建立了加速度反应谱规律性偏差表征参数的经验统计关系,并提出了有加速度反应谱规律性偏差的场地相关加速度反应谱的确定方法。虽有待改进,但本文提出的反应谱规律性偏差概念将有助于改进场地相关地震动反应谱的确定方法。

远海岛礁与场地地震反应研究现状

本文从岛礁地质构造、岛礁地震反应数值模拟方法和岛礁场地效应等方面总结了海域岛礁地震反应的研究现状,对比并且分析了海域岛礁数值模拟方法中的流固耦合模拟方法、固体边界模拟方法和地震动输入方法;总结了现有海域岛礁地震反应的场地效应相关的研究成果。相关研究表明:海水对岛礁场地的放大系数有明显影响,岛礁表面砂层对水平向地震动加速度峰值放大显著,随着输入地震动峰值的增大,岛礁场地的PGA放大效应趋于减小;海域岛礁场地对中低频段的地震动反应较为显著,加速度峰值放大系数一般介于1.5到4.0之间。为满足岛礁工程的抗震设计,需要进一步解决岛礁工程合理地震动输入、岛礁场地地震反应规律与岛礁工程的设计地震动参数等关键科学问题。

饱和复杂场地效应对大跨连续梁桥地震响应影响的研究

我国沿海地区大量大跨桥梁位于饱和复杂场地,此类场地通常存在土饱和特性、起伏地形、上覆水层,其对地震波的散射效应将导致地震动空间变化,然而目前缺乏针对此类场地条件的实测地震记录。针对此问题,本文建立了适用于饱和复杂场地大跨桥梁抗震分析的多点地震动模拟方法。首先,基于边界元法求解饱和复杂场地地震动传递函数;然后采用谱表示法生成空间变化人工地震动加速度时程;最后,以五跨连续梁桥为例,开展大跨桥梁地震响应分析,研究局部场地效应、动水压力效应对大跨连续梁桥地震响应的影响规律。结果表明,饱和复杂场地地震动加速度峰值表现出明显的空间变化特性,多点输入可导致饱和场地中地震动峰值加速度放大2~3倍,进而引起墩顶位移较一致地震作用结果增大95%~110%;动水压力可引起墩顶位移、墩底内力增大34%、29%。饱和复杂场地大跨桥梁抗震分析时忽略场地条件对地震动、桥梁地震响应的影响偏于不安全。

考虑土体非线性山-谷耦合复杂场地空间相关多点地震动模拟

采用考虑局部场地非线性地震波散射效应的空间相关多点地震动模拟方法,对山-谷耦合场地的地震动进行定量模拟分析。非线性地震波散射效应基于有限元-间接边界元耦合法和等效线性土体模型进行计算。结果表明,山体的存在会增大沉积内的地震动反应,对短周期的地震波的放大效应更为显著,增幅可达50%。相较于单一沉积谷地地形的沉积谷地外部,山-谷耦合场地中山体地震响应有所减小。相比线性模型,考虑土体非线性时,沉积谷地地震动强度较线性时的结果有所降低,反应谱峰值位置也会发生改变,但山体影响更为显著。不同山体形状对谷地影响不同,对于谷地内部分点位影响的差别可达40%。该研究为山-谷耦合场地工程结构抗震设防提供了部分理论依据和计算方法。

热效应下P波入射基岩-饱和土-非饱和土场地地震地面运动研究

基于热效应下弹性波的传播理论,通过建立P波入射基岩-饱和土-非饱和土场地模型,研究了该场地下地震地面运动的问题.采用Helmholtz分解原理,结合边界条件,对热效应作用下场地中的波场进行分析,得到平面P波入射基岩-饱和土-非饱和土场地地震地面运动的解析解答.通过数值模拟,分析了热传导系数、饱和度、地下水水位等物理力学参数对场地地震地面运动的影响规律.研究结果表明:在考虑热效应和等温条件两种模型时,场地位移放大系数表现出显著的差异.特别地,在等温条件下位移放大系数普遍大于考虑热效应时的值;水平位移放大系数的变化趋势与热膨胀系数及热通量相位延迟时间的增长呈正相关性.与此同时,当介质温度和饱和度增加时,水平位移放大系数则表现出下降的趋势;对于竖向位移放大系数,其变化模式与热通量相位延迟时间、介质温度和饱和度的增长呈正相关.然而,当热膨胀系数增加时,竖向位移放大系数呈现出减小的趋势;此外,热传导系数的增加对自由场地位移放大系数的影响不明显,表明热传导系数对场地位移放大系数的变化作用较小;在考虑地下水水位的影响时,热效应下随着地下水水位的升高,水平和竖向位移放大系数逐渐增大.相反,在等温条件下的位移放大系数均随之减小.

考虑地形效应的随机有限断层法地震动模拟研究

为在强地震动模拟计算中实现地震动的地形效应,采用地震动随机模拟中的有限断层法,依据山地中的局部场地条件和地形特征,提出在随机模型中构建局部场地放大项和高频衰减联合的场地效应项表征地形效应的方法,并以位处于张家口典型山地地形的崇礼冬奥会场址区为研究区,结合近场地震构造背景,完成场址区可能面临的强地震动场计算分析。结果表明:①计算得到崇礼场址区潜在最大地震动强度可能会达到210 cm/s 2;②山地模型与平层模型的对比研究得到不考虑地形效应的平层模型会低估地震动特性在山地地形的真实性;③在随机有限断层法中采用相应的局部场地放大系数和高频衰减因子组成的场地联合效应实现地形效应的表达途径是可行的,并且本方法在山体地形效应强度估计的准确性和地震动场计算效率方面具有一定优势。

河口盆地非线性地震效应及设计地震动参数

针对基岩明显起伏、土层非均匀分布的典型河口盆地场地,考虑土体非线性特征,采用黏弹性人工边界模拟无限域对地震波动的影响,建立大尺度精细化二维有限元模型,分析了盆地地表地震动幅值、频谱、持时、传递函数特征,探讨了基岩起伏土层的地震动聚集效应及盆地边缘效应。结果表明：（1）盆地近地表土层表现出不同程度的地震动放大效应,且随土层深度增加呈非单调递减特征,基岩突变处地震动聚集效应明显,盆地两侧产生较为显著的边缘效应;场地中、长周期地震动的放大作用显著;（2）多遇地震、偶遇地震和罕遇地震水平时,场地卓越周期依次介于0.35-0.65 s、0.40-0.75 s和0.50-1.05 s之间;给出了盆地地表PGA（地表峰值加速度）、卓越周期均值等值线图及地表加速度反应谱放大因子建议值,地表设计地震动参数amax（地震影响系数）与Tg（特征周期）明显大于现行《建筑抗震设计规范》取值;（3）盆地特殊位置地表地震动持时得到不同幅度增长,且与输入地震动特性相关;（4）该盆地对0.5-2.0 Hz频段基岩地震动的放大效应比较显著,对小于0.2 Hz或大于2.5 Hz的基岩地震动,该盆地地震动放大效应不明显;（5）福州城区及其邻近区域地震动放大效应普遍较大。大尺度二维非线性分析一定程度上能合理反映微地形起伏、土层分布及土体非线性对地震波传播过程的影响。

软弱地基浅埋隧洞对场地设计地震动的影响

针对南京地铁建设的实际背景和南京软弱地基的特点,以某典型软弱地基浅埋隧洞为研究对象,对该软弱场地土的动参数进行了室内外试验研究,给出了各类土的剪切模量比G/Gmax和阻尼比与剪应变幅值之间的关系曲线及各土层的剪切波速;λγ同时,采用等效线性化模型描述土的非线性性能,考虑地基土与地下浅埋隧洞动力相互作用的影响,采用二维有限元整体分析法对软弱地基浅埋隧洞开挖引起的场地地震效应的变化进行了数值模拟。计算结果表明与自由场的地震效应相比,浅埋隧洞对所处场地的地震效应有很大的影响,本文初步给出了这种影响的范围和影响的程度,以及开挖浅埋隧洞所引起的场地地震效应的一些变化规律,为确定地铁附近已建或新建建筑的设计地震动参数提供了参考依据;浅埋隧洞开挖对软弱场地设计地震动参数的影响应引起工程界足够的重视。

震级、震中距和场地条件对反应谱特性影响的统计分析

选取世界各地的地震记录共324组,研究了竖向与水平反应谱的比值(V/H)、反应谱峰值周期(Tp)、动力放大系数最大值(βmax)、地震影响系数最大值(αmax)和2水平向峰值周期的差值(△Tp)等参数,以及这些参数与场地类别、震级和震中距的关系．结果表明:1)现行规范中V/H=2/3基本符合实际情况的;2)竖向Tp 略小于相应水平Tp;竖向Tp随震中距和震级增大,场地类别的影响不明显;3)αmax随震中距的增加而减小．当震中距离比较大时,场地条件对αmax值的影响不明显;4)2个水平向反应谱的特征周期存在一定差异,随震级的增大这一差异有增大的趋势．

汶川地震局部地形对地震动的影响

关于局部地形对地震动的影响,一直是地震工程学的研究热点。选取汶川地震中自贡地形台有强震记录的山脊地形和典型地震灾害的北川县城河谷地形进行了强震观测记录、规范方法和数值模拟下的地形放大效应分析,结果表明:(1)规范法基本上可满足一般工程场地的要求;(2)对人员密集居住的高度大于60 m的较陡地形,建议应进行二维(三维)数值模拟下的地形效应分析。这为规范的修订提供了一些基础资料。