Location-Based Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey

Recently, location-based routings in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are attracting a lot of interest in the research community, especially because of its scalability. In location-based routing, the network size is scalable without increasing the signalling overhead as routing decisions are inherently localized. Here, each node is aware of its position in the network through some positioning device like GPS and uses this information in the routing mechanism. In this paper, we first discuss the basics of WSNs including the architecture of the network, energy consumption for the components of a typical sensor node, and draw a detailed picture of classification of location-based routing protocols. Then, we present a systematic and comprehensive taxonomy of location-based routing protocols, mostly for sensor networks. All the schemes are subsequently discussed in depth. Finally, we conclude the paper with some insights on potential research directions for location-based routing in WSNs.

Improving Reactive Ad Hoc Routing Performance by Geographic Route Length

In order to help reactive ad hoc routing protocols select better-performance routes, a novel metric named geographic route length （GRL） is proposed. The relationship between GRL metric and routing performance is analyzed in detail. Combined with hop metric, GRL is applied into the original ad hoe on-demand distance vector （AODV） to demonstrate its effectiveness. Simulation experiments have shown that GRL can effectively reduce packet delay and route discovery frequency, thus can improve reactive ad hoc routing performance.

Comparative Study of Proactive, Reactive and Geographical MANET Routing Protocols

Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is defined as a combination of mobile nodes that lack a fixed infrastructure and is quickly deployable under any circumstances. These nodes have self-aware architecture and are able to move in multiple directions, which renders it dynamic topology. Its dynamicity makes routing in MANET rather challenging compared to fixed wired networks. This paper aims to perform a comparative study on the three categories of MANET routing protocol by comparing their characteristics and operations, as well as their strength and weaknesses.

Multipath Grid-Based Enabled Geographic Routing for Wireless Sensor Networks

This work proposes an efficient disjoint multipath geographic routing algorithm for dense wireless sensor networks (WSN), called Multipath Grid-based Enabled Geographic Routing (MGEGR). The proposed algorithm relies on the construction of a 2-D logical grid in the geographical region of deployment. The objective of the proposed scheme is to determine optimal or near-optimal (within a defined constant) multiple disjoint paths (multipath) from a source node to the sink, in order to enhance the reliability of the network. The determined multiple disjoint paths would be used by the source node in a round-robin way to balance the traffic across the disjoint paths, and to avoid discovered paths with cell holes. The proposed scheme limits the use of broadcasting to the process of gateway election within each cell, and the process of maintaining the table of neighbors of each gateway. Our simulation results show the effectiveness and scalability of our routing scheme with increased network size compared to on-demand routing protocols.

Location-Based Routing Algorithms for Wireless Sensor Network

Routing algorithms based on geographical location is an important research subject in the Wireless Sensor Network(WSN).They use location information to guide routing discovery and maintenance as well as packet forwarding,thus enabling the best routing to be selected,reducing energy consumption and optimizing the whole network.Through three aspects involving the flooding restriction scheme,the virtual area partition scheme and the best routing choice scheme,the importance of location information is seen in the routing algorithm.

Geographic Drone-based Route Optimization Approach for Emergency Area Ad-Hoc Network

Wireless sensor Mobile ad hoc networks have excellent potential in moving and monitoring disaster area networks on real-time basis.The recent challenges faced in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks(MANETs)include scalability,localization,heterogeneous network,self-organization,and self-sufficient operation.In this background,the current study focuses on specially-designed communication link establishment for high connection stability of wireless mobile sensor networks,especially in disaster area network.Existing protocols focus on location-dependent communications and use networks based on typically-used Internet Protocol(IP)architecture.However,IP-based communications have a few limitations such as inefficient bandwidth utilization,high processing,less transfer speeds,and excessive memory intake.To overcome these challenges,the number of neighbors(Node Density)is minimized and high Mobility Nodes(Node Speed)are avoided.The proposed Geographic Drone Based Route Optimization(GDRO)method reduces the entire overhead to a considerable level in an efficient manner and significantly improves the overall performance by identifying the disaster region.This drone communicates with anchor node periodically and shares the information to it so as to introduce a drone-based disaster network in an area.Geographic routing is a promising approach to enhance the routing efficiency in MANET.This algorithm helps in reaching the anchor(target)node with the help of Geographical Graph-Based Mapping(GGM).Global Positioning System(GPS)is enabled on mobile network of the anchor node which regularly broadcasts its location information that helps in finding the location.In first step,the node searches for local and remote anticipated Expected Transmission Count(ETX),thereby calculating the estimated distance.Received Signal Strength Indicator(RSSI)results are stored in the local memory of the node.Then,the node calculates the least remote anticipated ETX,Link Loss Rate,and information to the new location.Freeway Heuristic algorithm improves the data speed,efficiency and determines the path and optimization problem.In comparison with other models,the proposed method yielded an efficient communication,increased the throughput,and reduced the end-to-end delay,energy consumption and packet loss performance in disaster area networks.

Safety Evaluation Method of Evacuation Routes in Areas in Case of Earthquake Disasters Using Ant Optimization Algorithm and Geographic Information Systems

The present study aims to propose the method for the quantitative evaluation of safety concerning evacuation routes in case of earthquake disasters in urban areas using ACO （Ant Colony Optimization） algorithm and GIS （Geographic Information Systems）. Regarding the safety evaluation method, firstly, the similarity in safety was focused on while taking into consideration road blockage probability, and after classifying roads by means of the hierarchical cluster analysis, the congestion rates of evacuation routes using ACO simulations were estimated. Based on these results, the multiple evacuation routes extracted were visualized on digital maps by means of GIS, and its safety was evaluated. Furthermore, the selection of safe evacuation routes between evacuation sites, for cases when the possibility of large-scale evacuation after an earthquake disaster is high, is made possible. As the safety evaluation method is based on public information, by obtaining the same geographic information as the present study, it is effective in other areas regardless of whether the information is of the past and future. Therefore, in addition to spatial reproducibility, the safety evaluation method also has high temporal reproducibility. Because safety evaluations are conducted on evacuation routes based on quantified data, highly safe evacuation routes that are selected have been quantitatively evaluated, and thus serve as an effective indicator when selecting evacuation routes.

A Trusted Routing Protocol Based on GeoDTN＋Nav in VANET

Because the node of vehicular ad-hoc networks has the characteristics of high mobility and encounter temporary, a trust management between the nodes in the routing process becomes more difficult. To solve this problem, this paper proposes a new trusted routing protocol in VANET based on GeoDTN＋Nav by using trust management model of Bayesian and the three opportunistic routing forwarding models, which includes four steps of the routing initialization, the routing discovery, the trusted routing establishment and the routing deletion. The proposed protocol not only improves the security of routing, but also has the lower time complexity. Besides, experimental results and analysis show that the protocol has achieved good performance in the removal ratio of malicious nodes, correct reception ratio of packet and the message payload.

An ellipse-guided routing algorithm in wireless sensor networks

In wireless sensor networks,sensor nodes are deployed to collect data,perform calculations,and forward information to either other nodes or sink nodes.Recently,geographic routing has become extremely popular because it only requires the locations of sensor nodes and is very efficient.However,the local minimum phenomenon,which hinders greedy forwarding,is a major problem in geographic routing.This phenomenon is attributed to an area called a hole that lacks active sensors,which either prevents the packet from being forwarded to a destination node or produces a long detour path.In order to solve the hole problem,mechanisms to detect holes and determine landmark nodes have been proposed.Based on the proposed mechanisms,landmark-based routing was developed in which the source node first sends a packet to the landmark node,and the landmark node then sends the packet to the destination.However,this approach often creates a constant node sequence,causing nodes that perform routing tasks to quickly run out of energy,thus producing larger holes.In this paper,a new approach is proposed in which two virtual ellipses are created with the source,landmark,and destination nodes.Then guide the forwarding along the virtual ellipses.Furthermore,a recursive algorithm is designed to ensure a shortcut even if there are multiple holes or a hole has multiple landmarks.Thus,the proposed approach improves both geographic routing and energy efficiency routing.Simulation experiments show that the proposed approach increases the battery life of sensor nodes,lowers the end-to-end delay,and generates a short path.

Potential field based hole detour routing algorithm in wireless sensor networks

The current geographic routing protocols arise data congestion if a multi-flow bypasses a hole simultaneously and excessive energy consumption of hole boundary nodes because these protocols tend to route data packets along the boundaries of void areas （holes） by perimeter routing scheme.This scheme possibly enlarges the holes phenomenon （called hole diffusion problem） and shortens the life span of the network. A novel geographical routing algorithm based on a potential field approach （PFA） is proposed to deal with multiple holes scenario and restrict data to forward near boundary of a hole. That is, data packets are attracted to its sink and are repulsed away from the hole （s）. Simulation results show that PFA is superior to other protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio, network lifetime.

A Void Avoidance Scheme for Grid-Based Multipath Routing in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

This work proposes a geographic routing protocol for UWSNs based on the construction of a 3D virtual grid structure, called Void-Avoidance Grid-based Multipath Position-based Routing (VA-GMPR). It consists of two main components, the multipath routing scheme and the grid-based void avoidance (GVA) mechanism for handling routing holes. The multipath routing scheme adopts node-disjoint routes from the source to the sink in order to enhance network reliability and load balancing. While the GVA mechanism handles the problem of holes in 3D virtual grid structure based on three techniques: Hole bypass, path diversion, and path backtracking. The performance evaluation of the VA-GMPR protocol was compared to a recently proposed grid-based routing protocol for UWSNs, called Energy-efficient Multipath Geographic Grid-based Routing (EMGGR). The results showed that the VA-GMPR protocol outperformed the EMGGR protocol in terms of packet delivery ratio, and end-to end-delay. However, the results also showed that the VA-GMPR protocol exhibited higher energy consumption compared to EMGGR.

Google Earth-based dynamic visualization system for storm surge flood routing

To describe the dynamic process of flood routing intuitively and realistically when storm surge disaster occurs,a method for ArcGIS data and Google Earth(GE) data integration is proposed,which realizes the importing and integrating of basic geographic information into GE. Based on SketchUp and AutoCAD software,threedimension(3D) visualization of seawall and other tidal defense structures is achieved. By employing Microsoft Foundation Class Library(MFC),the related system modules and storm surge flood routing dynamic visualization system are developed. Therefore,dynamic visualization of flood routing process and interactive query of submerged area and inundated depth are implemented. A practical application case study of Tianjin Binhai New Area provides decision-making support for coastal seawall planning and storm surge disaster prevention and reduction.

A Location-Based Content Search Approach in Hybrid Delay Tolerant Networks

In Delay Tolerant Networks （DTNs）, the offiine users can, through the encountering nodes, use the specific peer-to-peer message routing approach to deliver messages to the destination. Thus, it solves the problem that users have the demands to deliver messages while they are temporarily not able to connect to the Internet. Therefore, by the characteristics of DTNs, people who are not online can still query some location based information, with the help of users using the same service in the nearby area. In this paper, we proposed a location-based content search approach. Based on the concept of three-tier area and hybrid node types, we presented four strategies to solve the query problem, namely, Data Replication, Query Replication, Data Reply, and Data Synchronization strategies. Especially we proposed a Message Queue Selection algorithm for message transferring. The priority concept is set associated with every message such that the most ＂important＂ one could be sent first. In this way, it can increase the query success ratio and reduce the query delay time. Finally, we evaluated our approach, and compared with other routing schemes. The simulation results showed that our proposed approach had better query efficiency and shorter delay.

A Contention-Based MAC and Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Network

Advance development of wireless technologies and micro-sensor systems have enabled Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) to emerge as a leading solution in many crucial sensor-based applications. WSN deploys numerous resource-constrained sensor nodes which have limited power supply, memory and computation capability in a harsh environment. Inefficient routing strategy results in degraded network performance in terms of reliability, latency and energy efficiency. In this paper, a cross-layer design, Contention-based MAC and Routing protocol is proposed, termed Contention/SNIR-Based Forwarding (CSBF) protocol. CSBF utilizes the geographical information of sensor nodes to effectively guide the routing direction towards destination node, thereby enhancing reliability. Furthermore, Signal-to-Noise-plus-Interference Ratio (SNIR) metric is used as a routing parameter to guarantee high quality link for data transmission. A Contention-Winner Relay scheme is utilized to reduce the delays caused by the contention procedure. Energy efficiency is also improved by introducing sleep mode technique in CSBF. The simulation work is carried out via OMNeT++ network simulator. The performance of CSBF is compared with other existing routing protocols such as AODV and DSDV in terms of packet delivery ratio (PDR), average end-to-end (ETE) delay and energy consumption per packet. Simulation results highlight that CSBF outperforms AODV and DSDV protocols in respect of PDR and energy efficiency. CSBF also has the most consistent overall network performance.

ELGR:An Energy-efficiency and Load-balanced Geographic Routing Algorithm for Lossy Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Geographic routing is a highly active area of research in mobile ad hoc networks （MANETs） owing to its efficiency and scalability. However,the use of simple greedy forwarding decreases the packet reception rate （PRR） dramatically in unreliable wireless environments; this also depresses the network lifetime. Therefore,it is important to improve delivery performance and prolong MANET lifetime simultaneously. In this article,a novel geographic routing algorithm,named energy-efficiency and load-loalanced geographic routing （ELGR）,is presented for lossy MANETs. ELGR combines energy efficiency and load balance to make routing decisions. First,a link estimation scheme for the PRR is presented that increases the network energy efficiency level. Second,a learning method is proposed to adaptively sense local network loads,allowing enhanced whole network load balance. The results of a simulation show that ELGR performs better than several other geographic routing algorithms; in particular it extends network lifetime by about 20%,with a higher delivery ratio.

Beacon-Less Geographic Routing in Real Wireless Sensor Networks

Geographic Routing （GR） algorithms require nodes to periodically transmit HELLO messages to allow neighbors to know their positions （beaconing mechanism）. Beacon-less routing algorithms have recently been proposed to reduce the control overheads due to these messages. However, existing beacon-less algorithms have not considered realistic physical layers. Therefore, those algorithms cannot work properly in realistic scenarios. In this paper we present a new beacon-less routing protocol called BOSS. Its design is based on the conclusions of our open-field experiments using Tmote-sky sensors. BOSS is adapted to error-prone networks and incorporates a new mechanism to reduce collisions and duplicate messages produced during the selection of the next forwarder node. We compare BOSS with Beacon-Less Routing （BLR） and Contention-Based Forwarding （CBF） algorithms through extensive simulations. The results show that our scheme is able to ache.eve almost perfect packet delivery ratio （like BLR） while having a low bandwidth consumption （even lower than CBF）. Additionally, we carried out an empirical evaluation in a real testbed that shows the correctness of our simulation results.

Geographic Information and Node Selfish-Based Routing Algorithm for Delay Tolerant Networks

In Delay Tolerant Networks （DTNs）, some routing algorithms ignore that most nodes are selfish, i.e., nodes are willing to use their own resources to forward messages to nodes with whom they have a relationship. In view of this phenomenon, we propose a routing algorithm based on Geographic Information and Node Selfishness （GINS）. To choose a forwarding node, GINS combines nodes＇ willingness to forward and their geographic information to maximize the possibility of contacting the destination. GINS formulates the message forwarding process as a 0-1 Knapsack Problem with Assignment Restrictions to satisfy node demands for selfishness. Extensive simulations were conducted, and results show that GINS can achieve a high delivery ratio and a lower hop count compared with GRONE and LPHU. Furthermore, its overhead ratio is 25% and 30% less than that of GRONE and LPHU, respectively.

Scoped Bellman-Ford Geographic Routing for Large Dynamic Wireless Sensor Networks

Routing is a fundamental problem in wireless sensor networks. Most previous routing protocols are challenged when used in large dynamic networks as they suffer from either poor scalability or the void problem. In this paper, we propose a new geographic routing protocol, SBFR （Scoped Bellman-Ford Routing）, for large dynamic wireless sensor networks. The basic idea is that each node keeps a view scope of the network by computing distance vectors using the distributed Bellman- Ford method, and maintains a cost for routing to the sink. When forwarding a packet, a node picks the node with minimum cost in its routing table as a temporary landmark. While achieving good sealability, it also solves the void problem in an efficient manner through the combination of Bellman-Ford routing and cost-based geographic routing. Analytical and simulation results show that SBFR outperforms other routing protocols not only because of its robustness and scalability but also its practicality and simplicity.

An Entropy-Based Model for Recommendation of Taxis’Cruising Route

Cruising route recommendation based on trajectory mining can improve taxi-drivers'income and reduce energy consumption.However,existing methods mostly recommend pick-up points for taxis only.Moreover,their performance is not good enough since there lacks a good evaluation model for the pick-up points.Therefore,we propose an entropy-based model for recommendation of taxis'cruising route.Firstly,we select more positional attributes from historical pick-up points in order to obtain accurate spatial-temporal features.Secondly,the information entropy of spatial-temporal features is integrated in the evaluation model.Then it is applied for getting the next pick-up points and further recommending a series of successive points.These points are constructed a cruising route for taxi-drivers.Experimental results show that our method is able to obviously improve the recommendation accuracy of pick-up points,and help taxi-drivers make profitable benefits more than before.