Dynamic and electrical responses of a curved sandwich beam with glass reinforced laminate layers and a pliable core in the presence of a piezoelectric layer under low-velocity impact

The dynamic responses and generated voltage in a curved sandwich beam with glass reinforced laminate(GRL)layers and a pliable core in the presence of a piezoelectric layer under low-velocity impact(LVI)are investigated.The current study aims to carry out a dynamic analysis on the sandwich beam when the impactor hits the top face sheet with an initial velocity.For the layer analysis,the high-order shear deformation theory(HSDT)and Frostig's second model for the displacement fields of the core layer are used.The classical non-adhesive elastic contact theory and Hunter's principle are used to calculate the dynamic responses in terms of time.In order to validate the analytical method,the outcomes of the current investigation are compared with those gained by the experimental tests carried out by other researchers for a rectangular composite plate subject to the LVI.Finite element(FE)simulations are conducted by means of the ABAQUS software.The effects of the parameters such as foam modulus,layer material,fiber angle,impactor mass,and its velocity on the generated voltage are reviewed.

Dynamic Multi-Physics Behaviors and Performance Loss of Cylindrical Batteries Upon Low-Velocity Impact Loading

In challenging operational environments,Lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)inevitably experience mechanical stresses,including impacts and extrusion,which can lead to battery damage,failure,and even the occurrence of fire and explosion incidents.Consequently,it is imperative to investigate the safety performance of LIBs under mechanical loads.This study is grounded in a more realistic coupling scenario consisting of electrochemical cycling and low-velocity impact.We systematically and experimentally uncovered the mechanical,electrochemical,and thermal responses,damage behavior,and corresponding mechanisms under various conditions.Our study demonstrates that higher impact energy results in increased structural stiffness,maximum temperature,and maximum voltage drop.Furthermore,heightened impact energy significantly influences the electrical resistance parameters within the internal resistance.We also examined the effects of State of Charge(SOC)and C-rates.The methodology and experimental findings will offer insights for enhancing the safety design,conducting risk assessments,and enabling the cascading utilization of energy storage systems based on LIBs.

Quasi-static and low-velocity impact mechanical behaviors of entangled porous metallic wire material under different temperatures

To improve the defense capability of military equipment under extreme conditions,impact-resistant and high-energy-consuming materials have to be developed.The damping characteristic of entangled porous metallic wire materials(EPMWM)for vibration isolation was previously investigated.In this paper,a study focusing on the impact-resistance of EPMWM with the consideration of ambient temperature is presented.The quasi-static and low-velocity impact mechanical behavior of EPMWM under different temperatures(25℃-300℃)are systematically studied.The results of the static compression test show that the damping energy dissipation of EPMWM increases with temperature while the nonlinear damping characteristics are gradually enhanced.During the impact experiments,the impact energy loss rate of EPMWM was between 65%and 85%,while the temperatures increased from 25℃to 300℃.Moreover,under the same drop impact conditions,the overall deformation of EPMWM decreases in the temperature range of 100℃-200℃.On the other hand,the impact stiffness,energy dissipation,and impact loss factor of EPMWM significantly increase with temperature.This can be attributed to an increase in temperature,which changes the thermal expansion coefficient and contact state of the internal wire helixes.Consequently,the energy dissipation mode(dry friction,air damping,and plastic deformation)of EPMWM is also altered.Therefore,the EPMWM may act as a potential candidate material for superior energy absorption applications.

Low-velocity Impact Damage Analysis of Composite Laminates Using Self-adapting Delamination Element Method

On the basis ofa 2D 4-node Mindlin shell element method, a novel self-adapting delamination finite element method is presented, which is developed to model the delamination damage of composite laminates. In the method, the sublaminate elements are generated automatically when the delamination damage occurs or extends. Thus, the complex process and state of delamination damage can be simulated practically with high efficiency for both analysis and modeling. Based on the self-adapting delamination method, linear dynamic finite element damage analysis is performed to simulate the low-velocity impact damage process of three types of mixed woven composite laminates. Taking the frictional force among sublaminations during delaminating and the transverse normal stress into account, the analytical results are consistent with those of the experimental data.

Nonlinear progressive damage model for composite laminates used for low-velocity impact

In order to effectively describe the progressively intralaminar and interlam- inar damage for composite laminates, a three dimensional progressive damage model for composite laminates to be used for low-velocity impact is presented. Being applied to three-dimensional （3D） solid elements and cohesive elements, the nonlinear damage model can be used to analyze the dynamic performance of composite structure and its failure be- havior. For the intralaminar damage, as a function of the energy release rate, the damage model in an exponential function can describe progressive development of the damage. For the interlaminar damage, the damage evolution is described by the framework of the continuum mechanics through cohesive elements. Coding the user subroutine VUMAT of the finite element software ABAQUS/Explicit, the model is applied to an example, i.e., carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composite laminates under low-velocity impact. It is shown that the prediction of damage and deformation agrees well with the experimental results.

Influence of Low-velocity Impact on Damage Behavior of Carbon Fiber-reinforced Composites

A combination of experimental measurements and numerical analysis was utilized to study the low-velocity impact damage of domestic carbon fiber-reinforced composites(CFRCs).The results indicated that the low-velocity impact damage induced pits and longitudinal cracks on the front side,oblique cracks and delaminationin on the back side.The pit depth increased with the increasing impact energy.It was demonstrated that the numerical analysis strain history curve was similar to the experimentally measured strain history curve,which verified the accuracy of numerical analysis in which the Hashin failure criterion was used.The work provides basic data and theoretical basis for the promotion and application of the domestic carbon fiber,and demonstrates the feasibility of replacing imported carbon fibers with domestic carbon fibers.

STUDY ON THE RESPONSE TO LOW-VELOCITY IMPACT OF A COMPOSITE PLATE IMPROVED BY SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY

Improvement from the pseudo-elastic effect of shape memory alloy （SMA） on the low-velocity impact （LVI） resistance of a composite plate is investigated by the finite element method （FEM）. The stiffness matrix of the dynamic finite element equation is established step by step and the martensite fraction is obtained at each time step. The direct Newmark integration method is employed in solving the dynamic finite element equation, while the impact contact force is determined using the modified Hertz＇s law. It is found that SMA can effectively improve the performance of a composite structure subjected to low-velocity impact. Numerical results show that the deflection of a SMA-hybrid composite plate has been reduced approximately by thirty percent when the volume fraction of the embedded SMA reaches 0.3.

Design Optimization of CFRP Stacking Sequence Using a Multi-Island Genetic Algorithms Under Low-velocity Impact Loads

A method to improve the low-velocity impact performance of composite laminate is proposed, and a multi-island genetic algorithm is used for the optimization of composite laminate stacking sequence under low-velocity impact loads based on a 2D dynamic impact finite element analysis. Low-velocity impact tests and compression-after impact（CAI） tests have been conducted to verify the effectiveness of optimization method. Experimental results show that the impact damage areas of the optimized laminate have been reduced by 42.1% compared to the baseline specimen, and the residual compression strength has been increased by 10.79%, from baseline specimen 156.97 MPa to optimized 173.91 MPa. The tests result shows that optimization method can effectively enhance the impact performances of the laminate.

Low-velocity impact of rectangular foam-filled fiber metal laminate tubes

Through theoretical analysis and finite element simulation,the low-velocity impact of rectangular foam-filled fiber metal laminate(FML)tubes is studied in this paper.According to the rigid-plastic material approximation with modifications,simple analytical solutions are obtained for the dynamic response of rectangular foam-filled FML tubes.The numerical calculations for low-velocity impact of rectangular foam-filled FML tubes are conducted.The accuracy of analytical solutions and numerical results is verified by each other.Finally,the effects of the metal volume fraction of FMLs,the number of the metal layers in FMLs,and the foam strength on the dynamic response of foam-filled tubes are discussed through the analytical model in details.It is shown that the force increases with the increase in the metal volume fraction in FMLs,the number of the metal layers in FML,and the foam strength for the given deflection.

Experimental Investigation on Low-Velocity Impact Response and Residual Compressive Bearing Capacity of Composite Stringers

Three types of composite stringers were impacted from two different directions.Relationships between impact energy and visible defect length were found.The critical impact energy corresponding to barely visible impact damage(BVID)of each stringer was determined.Specimens with BVID were then compressed to obtain the residual strength.Experimental results showed that for all types of stringers,the critical energy of in-plane impact is always much lower than out-plane ones.In-plane impact causes much more decrement of stringers'bearing capacity than outplane impact.For both impact directions,I-stringers own the highest defect detectability,T-stringers come second.Meanwhile,I-stringers own the better residual strength ratio than I-stringers and I-stringers.Synthetic considering impact defect detectability and residual bearing capacity after impact,T-stringers own the best compression-afterimpact(CAI)behaviors.

Experiments and simulation of low-velocity impact characteristics on carbon fiber composite lattice core sandwich structures

Since composite sandwich structures are susceptible to low-velocity impact damage,a thorough characterization of the loading and damage process during impact is important.In the present paper,the low-velocity impact response of carbon fiber composites lattice structures is investigated by experimental and numerical methods.Impact tests on composite plates are performed using an instrumented drop-weight machine(Instron 9250HV)and a new damage mode is observed.A three-dimensional finite element model is built by ABAQUS/Explicit and user subroutine(VUMAT)to predict the peak loading and simulate the complicated damage problem.The numerical predictions are in good agreement with the experimental results.

Low-Velocity Impact Response of Stitched Multi-layer Foam Sandwich Composites

Low-velocity impact damage known as“imperceptible”damage usually destroys the structural integrity of the material and seriously affects the service life of the materials.To improve the low-velocity impact resistance of foam sandwich composites,an innovative concept of a stitched multi-layer sandwich structure by organically combining the discrete splitting of foam layer with full thickness stitching was proposed,and its low-velocity impact resistance obtained through drop-hammer impact tests was explored.The results showed that the multi-layer foam sandwich structure acted as a stress disperser and reduced the irreversible impact damage.The depth and area of low-velocity impact damage of multi-layer foam sandwich composites gradually decreased with increasing the number of the layers.The stitched structure would improve the integrity of the foam sandwich composites and inhibit the propagation of cracks.The maximum impact load of the stitched foam sandwich composite increased by approximately 5% compared with that of the non-stitched material.In addition,the low-velocity impact damage depth,damage area and absorbed energy of the stitched three-layer foam sandwich composite were reduced by 37.7%,34.6% and 20.7%,respectively,compared with those of the non-stitched single-layer sandwich material.

Damage Initiation and Propagation in Composites Subjected to Low-Velocity Impact:Experimental Results,3D Dynamic Damage Model,and FEM Simulations

A three-dimensional dynamic damage model that fits both small and large damage sizes is developed to predict impact damage initiation and propagation for each lamina of T300-carbon/epoxy laminations.First,13 specimens of the same lamination sequence are subjected to three different impact energies(10 J,15 J,and 20 J).After the impact,the laminates are inspected by the naked eye to observe the damage in the outer layers,and subsequently X-rayed to detect the inner damage.Next,the stress analysis of laminates subjected to impact loading is presented,based on the Hertz contact law and virtual displacement principle.Based on the analysis results,a three-dimensional dynamic damage model is proposed,including the Hou failure criteria and Camanho stiffness degradation model,to predict the impact damage shape and area.The numerical predictions of the damage shape and area show a relatively reasonable agreement with the experiments.Finally,the impact damage initiation and propagation for each lamina are investigated using this damage model,and the results improve the understanding of the impact process.

ON RESIDUAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH PREDICTION OF COMPOSITE SANDWICH PANELS AFTER LOW-VELOCITY IMPACT DAMAGE

This paper introduces a nonlinear finite element analysis on damage propagation behavior of composite sandwich panels under in-plane uniaxial quasi-static compression after a low velocity impact. The major damage modes due to the impact, including the residual indentation on the impacted facesheet, the initially crushed core under the impacted area, and the delamination are incorporated into the model. A consequential core crushing mechanism is incorporated into the analysis by using an element deactivation technique. Damage propagation behavior, which corresponds to those observed in sandwich compression after impact （SCAI） tests, has been successfully captured in the numerical simulation. The critical far field stress corresponding to the onset of damage propagation at specified critical locations near the damage zone are captured successfully. They show a good correlation with experimental data. These values can be used to effectively predict the residual compressive strength of low-velocity impact damaged composite sandwich panels.

Low-Velocity Impact and Compression after Impact(CAI)Behaviors of Carbon-Aramid/Epoxy Hybrid Braided Composite Laminates

Low-velocity impact and in-plane axial compression after impact(CAI)behaviors of carbon-aramid/epoxy hybrid braided composite laminates were investigated experimentally.The following three different types of carbon-aramid/epoxy hybrid braided composite laminates were produced and tested:(a)inter-hybrid laminates,(b)sandwich-like inter-hybrid laminates,and(c)unsymmetric-hybrid laminates.At the same time,carbon/epoxy braided composite laminates were used for comparisons.Impact properties and impact resistance were studied.Internal damages and damage mechanisms of laminates were detected by ultrasonic C-scan and B-scan methods.The results show that the ductility index(DI)values of three kinds of hybrid laminates aforementioned are 37%,4%and 120%higher than those of carbon/epoxy laminates,respectively.The peak load of inter-hybrid laminates is higher than that of sandwich-like inter-hybrid laminates and unsymmetric-hybrid laminates.The average damage area and dent depths of inter-hybrid laminates are 64%and 69%smaller than those of carbon/epoxy laminates.Those results show that carbon-aramid/epoxy hybrid braided composite laminates could significantly improve the impact properties and toughness of non-hybrid braided composite laminates.

Numerical Analysis and Experimental Verification of Ti/APC-2/Kevlar Hybrid Composite Laminates Due to Low-Velocity Impact

The mechanical properties of Ti/APC-2/Kevlar/epoxy hybrid composite laminates after low velocity impact were investigated at room temperature. There were three types of samples, including three layered [Ti/(0/90)s/Ti], five layered [Ti/(0/90)2/]s and nine layered [Ti/Kevlar/Ti/(0/90)2/]s. The lay-ups of APC-2 were crossply, while Ti layers were treated by chromic acid anodic method. Ti and APC-2 were stacked to fabricate the composite laminates via hot press curing process. Kevlar layers were added to fabricate nine-layered composite laminates via vacuum assisted resin transfer molding. The drop-weight tests were conducted with a hemispherical nosed projectile in 10 mm diameter. The impact loads were 5 kg and 10 kg and impact heights were adjusted to penetrate samples or the maximum height 1.50 m. The static tensile tests were conducted to measure the residual mechanical properties after impact. The free body drop tests were also simulated by using finite element method and software ANSYS LS-DYNA3D. The results showed that the bottom Ti layer absorbed more internal energy than the top Ti layer, then the cracks were found in the bottom Ti layer more often. The ultimate tensile strength reduced significantly after impact. The initial longitudinal compliance increased with the impact height increasing and decreased after the samples penetrated. Comparing the experimental data with the numerical results, it was found that the damage of the latter was more serious than that of the former. On the conservative side, the results of numerical simulation are acceptable and adopted for applications when no testing data available.

Punching and Local Damages of Fiber and FRP Reinforced Concrete under Low-Velocity Impact Load

In recent years, the development and application of high performance fiber reinforced concrete or cementitious composites are increasing due to their high ductility and energy absorption characteristics. However, it is difficult to obtain the required properties of the FRCC by simply adding fiber to the concrete matrix. Many researchers are paying attention to fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) for the reinforcement of construction structures because of their significant advantages over high strain rates. However, the actual FRP products are skill-dependent, and the quality may not be uniform. Therefore, in this study, two-way punching tests were carried out to evaluate the performances of FRP strengthened and steel and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber reinforced concrete specimens for impact and static loads. The FRP reinforced normal concrete (NC), steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC), and PVA FRCC specimens showed twice the amount of enhanced dissipated energy (total energy) under impact loadings than the non-retrofitted specimens. In the low-velocity impact test of the two-way NC specimens strengthened by FRPs, the total dissipated energy increased by 4 to 5 times greater than the plain NC series. For the two-way specimens, the total energy increased by 217% between the non-retrofitted SFRC and NC specimens. The total dissipated energy of the CFRP retrofitted SFRC was twice greater than that of the plain SFRC series. The PVA FRCC specimens showed 4 times greater dissipated energy than for the energy of the plain NC specimens. For the penetration of two-way specimens with fibers, the Hughes formula considering the tensile strength of concrete was a better predictor than other empirical formulae.

Interlaminar Fracture Toughness and Low-Velocity Impact Resistance of Woven Glass Epoxy Composite Laminates of EP3 Grade

This work presents the delamination resistance of woven glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP) and its influence on GFRP’s resistance to point impact. Two different types of laminates were fabricated by hand lay-up technique;(i) woven glass fibre epoxy matrix laminates and (ii) woven glass fibre epoxy matrix laminates with 3% graphite particulate fillers. End Notch Flexure (ENF) test was adopted for the measurement of delamination resistance. The two GFRPs laminates show similar mode II delamination resistance. At impact velocities between 2.215 and 4.429 m/sec, the GFRP developed a smaller damage size than the graphite-based GFRP laminates, indicating higher impact toughness. Difference of the impact resistance between the two GFRPs is mainly on the impact damage size developed. The total energy absorbed during the impact remains the same, which is independent of mode II delamination resistance of the GFRP. The history of relevant dynamic and energetic quantities, both to synthesize the dependency of the energy parameters and force threshold values on the impact velocity are discussed.

Anisotropic Visco-Elastoplastic Modeling of Quasi-Unidirectional Flax Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Behavior:An Investigation on Low-Velocity Impact Response

Based on experimental test results,flax fiber reinforced polymer composites are characterized by nonlinear visco-elastoplastic behavior.The aim of this work is to model the quasi-unidirectional flax fiber reinforced composite behavior through a three dimensional formulation with orthotropic elasticity and orthotropic plasticity using Hill criterion.The isotropic hardening and Johnson Cook parameters are identified from unidirectional tensile tests at different strain rates.The adjustment of Hill’s yield criterion is developed based on yield stresses obtained in tensile tests at different directions.The numerical integration of the constitutive equations is implemented in a user-defined material,UMAT subroutines for the commercial finite element code ABAQUS.Once model parameters are identified using tensile tests,the model needs to be validated by confronting it with other experimental results.That is why experimental and numerical three-point bending tests are carried out in order to validate the proposed model with tests that have not served for the identification.Finally,a numerical parametric study on low velocity impact of a flax/epoxy composite circular plate is investigated.

Dynamic Flexural Modulus and Low-Velocity Impact Response of Supercomposite^TMLaminates with Vertical Z-Axis Milled Carbon Fiber Reinforcement

In work reported here, the dynamic properties and low-velocity impact response of woven carbon/epoxy laminates incorporating a novel 3D interlaminar reinforcement concept with dense layers of Z-axis oriented milled carbon fiber SupercompositeTM prepregs, are presented. Impulse-frequency response vibration technique is used for non-destructive evaluation of the dynamic flexural modulus (stiffness) and loss factor (intrinsic damping) of woven carbon/epoxy control and SupercompositeTM laminates. Low-velocity punch-shear tests were performed on control and SupercompositeTM laminates according to ASTM D3763 Standard using a drop-weight impact test system. Control panels had all layers of 3K plain woven carbon/epoxy prepregs, with a dense interlaminar reinforcement of milled carbon fibers in Z- direction used in designing the SupercompositeTM laminate—both having same areal density. Impulse-frequency response vibration experiments show that with a 50% replacement of woven carbon fabric in control panel with milled carbon fibers in Z direction dynamic flexural modulus reduced 25% - 30% (loss in stiffness) and damping increased by about the same 25% - 30%. Low-velocity punch-shear tests demonstrated about 25% reduction in energy absorption for SupercompositeTM laminates with the replacement of 50% woven carbon fabric in control panel.