Metallurgical performance evaluation of space-weathered Chang’e-5 lunar soil

Space metallurgy is an interdisciplinary field that combines planetary space science and metallurgical engineering.It involves systematic and theoretical engineering technology for utilizing planetary resources in situ.However,space metallurgy on the Moon is challenging because the lunar surface has experienced space weathering due to the lack of atmosphere and magnetic field,making the mi-crostructure of lunar soil differ from that of minerals on the Earth.In this study,scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses were performed on Chang’e-5 powder lunar soil samples.The microstructural characteristics of the lunar soil may drastically change its metallurgical performance.The main special structure of lunar soil minerals include the nanophase iron formed by the impact of micrometeorites,the amorphous layer caused by solar wind injection,and radiation tracks modified by high-energy particle rays inside mineral crystals.The nanophase iron presents a wide distribution,which may have a great impact on the electromagnetic prop-erties of lunar soil.Hydrogen ions injected by solar wind may promote the hydrogen reduction process.The widely distributed amorph-ous layer and impact glass can promote the melting and diffusion process of lunar soil.Therefore,although high-energy events on the lun-ar surface transform the lunar soil,they also increase the chemical activity of the lunar soil.This is a property that earth samples and tradi-tional simulated lunar soil lack.The application of space metallurgy requires comprehensive consideration of the unique physical and chemical properties of lunar soil.

Damage constitutive model of lunar soil simulant geopolymer under impact loading

Lunar base construction is a crucial component of the lunar exploration program,and considering the dynamic characteristics of lunar soil is important for moon construction.Therefore,investigating the dynamic properties of lunar soil by establishing a constitutive relationship is critical for providing a theoretical basis for its damage evolution.In this paper,a split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB)device was used to perform three sets of impact tests under different pressures on a lunar soil simulant geopolymer(LSSG)with sodium silicate(Na_(2)SiO_(3))contents of 1%,3%,5%and 7%.The dynamic stressestrain curves,failure modes,and energy variation rules of LSSG under different pressures were obtained.The equation was modified based on the ZWT viscoelastic constitutive model and was combined with the damage variable.The damage element obeys the Weibull distribution and the constitutive equation that can describe the mechanical properties of LSSG under dynamic loading was obtained.The results demonstrate that the dynamic compressive strength of LSSG has a marked strain-rate strengthening effect.Na_(2)SiO_(3) has both strengthening and deterioration effects on the dynamic compressive strength of LSSG.As Na_(2)SiO_(3) grows,the dynamic compressive strength of LSSG first increases and then decreases.At a fixed air pressure,5%Na_(2)SiO_(3) had the largest dynamic compressive strength,the largest incident energy,the smallest absorbed energy,and the lightest damage.The ZWT equation was modified according to the stress response properties of LSSG and the range of the SHPB strain rate to obtain the constitutive equation of the LSSG,and the model’s correctness was confirmed.

Preparation and Characterization of High-Strength Geopolymer Based on BH-1 Lunar Soil Simulant with Low Alkali Content

The construction of a lunar base and habitation on the Moon has always been on researchers’minds.Building materials used in in situ lunar resources are of great significance for saving expensive space freight.In this study,a new type of lunar soil simulant named Beihang(BH)-1 was developed.The chemical mineral composition and microstructure of BH-1 closely resemble those of real lunar soil,as verified by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy(XRF),X-ray diffraction(XRD),scanning electron microscopy(SEM),and reflectance spectra.This research also synthesized a geopolymer based on BH-1 cured at simulated lunar atmospheric conditions.We also investigated the effect of supplementing aluminum(Al)sources on the enhancement of geopolymer strength based on BH-1.The rheological behavior of alkali-activated BH-1 pastes was determined for workability.XRF,XRD,Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy,SEM coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy,and 27Al magic angle spinningnuclear magnetic resonance were used to characterize resulting geopolymers.Rheological test findings showed that the rheology of BH-1 pastes fits the Herschel–Bulkley model,and they behaved like a shear-thinning fluid.The results showed that the 28-day compressive strength of the BH-1 geopolymer was improved by up to 100.8%.Meanwhile,the weight of additives required to produce per unit strength decreased,significantly reducing the mass of materials transported from the Earth for the construction of lunar infrastructure and saving space transportation costs.Microscopic analyses showed that the mechanism to improve the mechanical properties of the BH-1 geopolymer by adding an additional Al source enhances the replacement of silicon atoms by Al atoms in the silicon–oxygen group and generates a more complete and dense amorphous gel structure.

A novel specimen preparation method for TJ-1 lunar soil simulant in hollow cylinder apparatus

Conventional methods for hollow cylinder apparatus （HCA） specimen preparation are not applicable for T J-1 lunar soil simulant due to its wide particle size distribution. A novel method to prepare uniform T J-1 specimen for HCA tests is put forward. The method is a combination of the multi-layering dry-rodding method and a new under-compaction criterion in the multi-layer with under-compaction method （UCM）. In the novel method, the specimen is prepared with 5 layers by dry-rodding and the UCM is used to determine the height after each layer is compacted. The density uniformity of specimen is evaluated by the freezing method to find out the best under-compaction criterion. Two HCA specimens with the same target density are prepared by the novel method and examined in the tests of pure rotation of the principal stresses. Their conformable mechanical behaviors ascertain the effectiveness of the method to produce uniform and reproducible HCA specimens. Four groups of HCA tests are carried out to investigate the anisotropic and non-coaxial behaviors of TJ-I lunar soil simulant. The results indicate that the principal stress direction, the deviator stress ratio, the stress level and the coefficient of the intermediate principal stress significantly influence the strength and deformation properties of T J-1 lunar soil simulant.

Quantification of the chemical composition of lunar soil in terms of its reflectance spectra by PCA and SVM

In the second phase of the Chang'E Program an unmanned lunar rover will be launched onto the Moon. When ground scientists get a full understanding of the chemical composition of lunar soil around the rover, they can make more detailed survey plans for the rover and various payloads onboard so as to satisfy their scientific objectives. There is an obvious relationship between the reflectance of lunar soil and its chemical characteristics. Both principal component analysis (PCA) and support vector machine (SVM) models were applied to establishing the relationship between the reflectance spectra and chemical compositions of lunar highland and mare soil samples sent back by Apollo missions 11, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 17 and measured by Lunar Soil Characterization Consortium (LSCC). PCA was used to reduce and select the features of the reflectance spectra of lunar soil samples. Then, these features were put into SVM to estimate the abundances of various chemical components in lunar soil. We also compared the results of our measurement with those obtained by the SVM model [partial least squares (PLS)] and the principal component regression (PCR) model reported in literature. Our studies showed that with the exception of TiO2, the results of prediction of the abundances of chemical compounds in lunar soil by our model are much more reliable than those reported in literature. The reflectance spectra of lunar soil are closely related to the materials from which it was derived.

Microwave Brightness Temperature and Lunar Soil Dielectric Property Retrieve

Among many scientific objectives of lunar exploration, investigations on lunar soil become more and more attractive to the scientists duo to the existence of abundant 3He and ilmenite in the lunar soil and their possible utilization. Although the soil composition determination on the lunar surface is available by visible light spectrometer,γ/X-ray spectrometer etc, the evaluations on the total reserves of 3He and ilmenite in the lunar deep and on the thickness of the lunar soil are still impossible so far. In this paper, the authors first give a rough analysis of the microwave brightness temperature images of the lunar disc observed using the NRAO 12 Meter Telescope and Siberian Solar Radio Telescope; then introduce our researches on the microwave dielectric properties of lunar soil simulators; finally, discuss some basic relations between the microwave brightness temperature and lunar soil properties.

Fundamental Study on Response Properties of Structures Constructed on Lunar Regolith

The Artemis Program, for constructing the lunar base, is in progress. How to design and construct architectural and civil engineering structures in the lunar environment has become an important issue. The lunar surface is covered with soft sand, called regolith, and it is required to protect lunar bases and structures, as well as internal precision equipment, against vibrational disturbances such as moonquakes and meteorite collisions. Therefore, in this study, the static and cyclic triaxial compression tests of the regolith simulant were conducted. The reference strain and equivalent damping factor of the regolith simulant were smaller compared to sandy soil on Earth. In addition, a shaking table test using model specimens was conducted on the response properties of regolith ground alone and structures set on regolith ground. The buried foundation and pile foundation notably suppressed the horizontal response attributed to the rocking component compared to a direct foundation.

Quantifying TiO_2 Abundance of Lunar Soils:Partial Least Squares and Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis for Determining Causal Effect

Partial least squares （PLS） regression was applied to the Lunar Soft Characterization Consortium （LSCC） dataset for spectral estimation of TiO2. The LSCC dataset was split into a number of subsets including the low-Ti, high-Ti, total mare soils, total highland, Apollo 16, and Apollo 14 soils to investigate the effects of interfering minerals and nonlinearity on the PLS performance. The PLS weight loading vectors were analyzed through stepwise multiple regression analysis （SMRA） to identify mineral species driving and interfering the PLS performance. PLS exhibits high performance for estimating TiO2 for the LSCC low-Ti and high-Ti mare samples and both groups analyzed together. The results suggest that while the dominant TiO2-bearing minerals are few, additional PLS factors are required to compensate the effects on the important PLS factors of minerals that are not highly corrected to TiO2, to accommodate nonlinear relationships between reflectance and TiO2, and to correct inconsistent mineral-TiO2 correlations between the high-Ti and iow-Ti mare samples. Analysis of the LSCC highland soil samples indicates that the Apollo 16 soils are responsible for the large errors of TiO2 estimates when the soils are modeled with other subgroups. For the LSCC Apollo 16 samples, the dominant spectral effects of plagioclase over other dark minerals are primarily responsible for large errors of estimated TiO2. For the Apollo 14 soils, more accurate estimation for TiO2 is attributed to the posi- tive correlation between a major TiOe-bearing component and TiO2, explaining why the Apollo 14 soils follow the regression trend when analyzed with other soils groups.

Production of Fibres from Lunar Soil:Feasibility,Applicability and Future Perspectives

The construction of a lunar base is considered to be an important step towards deep-space exploration by humanity,and will rely on the utilisation of in situ lunar resources.In this paper,we discuss the current knowledge on the feasibility of converting lunar soil to high-performance fibres that can be used for the construction of a lunar base.This fibre would be combined with further portions of lunar soil to generate fibre-reinforced composites,which is utilized as multi-functional materials for lunar base construction.We discuss and analyse the latest findings regarding the composition of lunar soil simulants and their fibrisation properties,and techniques for fibre spinning and system integration.Finally,we suggest how the achievements made so far could be applied to the construction of a lunar base.

Noble Gas Diffusion Mechanism in Lunar Soil Simulant Grains:Results from ~4He^+ Implantation and Extraction Experiments

Experiments on ion implantation were performed in order to better characterize diffusion of noble gases in lunar soil. ^4He^＋ at 50 keV with 5×10^16 ions/cm^2 was implanted into lunar simuiants and crystal ilmenite. Helium in the samples was released by stepwise heating experiments. Based on the data, we calculated the helium diffusion coefficient and activation energy. Lunar simulants dis- play similar ^4He release patterns in curve shape as lunar soil, but release temperatures are a little lower. This is probably a consequence of long-term diffusion after implantation in lunar soil grains. Variation of activation energy was identified in the Arrhenius plots of lunar simulants and Panzhihua （攀枝花） ilmenite. We conclude that noble gas release in lunar soil cannot be described as simple thermally activated volume diffusion. Variation of diffusion parameters could be attributed to physical transformation during high temperature. Radiation damage probably impedes helium diffusion. However, bubble radius growth during heating does not correlate with activation energy variation. Activation energy of Panzhihua ilmenite is 57.935 kJ/mol. The experimental results confirm that ilmenite is more retentive for noble gas than other lunar materials.

Experimental research and statistical analysis on the dielectric properties of lunar soil simulators

To support the microwave brightness data re- trieval of future China space-borne lunar exploration mi- crowave radiometer, based on the collection of plentiful ter- restrial basalts and anorthosites and their chemical composi- tions got by X-ray fluorescence, nine lunar soil simulators were prepared and made respectively into 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6 g/cm3 five densities each. We measured their relative dielectric constants over the range of 0.5?20 GHz with open-ended coaxial line model on the HP8722C Network Analyzer and then processed and analyzed the measurement data. This study shows that among the three parameters of density, frequency and composition, density has the strongest effect on the relative dielectric constants, frequency comes second, composition the least. The three parameters account for 45%, 33% and 22% respectively of the changed real part of a relative dielectric constant, and 55%, 27% and 19% respectively of the changed imaginary part. The real parts of the relative dielectric constants are linearly linearly corre- lated with density or frequency, and the imaginary parts have a linear relation with both approximately over the range of 0.5?10 GHz and tend to be poorly correlated with them in 10?20 GHz. The effect of composition on a relative dielectric constant seems very complicated, both probably do not follow a simple function relation, with the least correla- tion. Multiple regression analysis indicates that major ele- ment oxides SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, TiO2 and ?Fe are cor- respondent to a one-order polynomial, and TiO2 or ?Fe or TiO2+?Fe has not been proven to be the indicators in the contribution to the relative dielectric constants.

Two Lunar Mare Soil Simulants

Two new lunar mare soil simulants,NAO-2 and NAO-3,have been created in National Astronomical Observatories(NAO),Chinese Academy of Sciences.These two simulants were produced from low-titanium basalt and high-titanium basalt respectively.The chemical composition,mineralogy, particle size distribution,density,angle of internal friction,and cohesion of both simulants have been analyzed,indicating that some characteristics of NAO-2 and NAO-3 are similar to those of Apollo 14 and Apollo 11 landing site soils.NAO-2 and NAO-3 will be of great benefit to the scientific and engineering research on lunar soil.

Drilling Power Consumption and Soil Conveying Volume Performances of Lunar Sampling Auger

The sampling auger used in lunar sampling and return mission is to transmit power and convey soil, and its performance is the key factor of the whole mission. However, there is currently a lack of the optimization research on soil conveying volume and power consumption models in auger structure design. To provide the drilled object, the simulation lunar soil, whose physical and mechanical property is the same as the real soil, is made by reducing soil void ratio. The models are formulated to analyze the influence of auger structure parameters on power consumption and soil conveying volume. To obtain the optimized structure parameters of auger, the multi-objective optimization functions of the maximum soil conveying volume and minimum power consumption are developed. To verify the correctness of the models, the performances of different augers drilling simulation soil are tested. The test results demonstrate that the power consumption of optimized auger is the lowest both in theory and test, and the experimental results of soil conveying volume are in agreement with theoretical analysis. Consequently, a new method for designing a lunar sampling auger is proposed which includes the models of soil conveying volume and transportation power consumption, the optimization of structure parameters and the comparison tests. This method provides a reference for sampling auger designing of the Chinese Lunar Sample Mission.

月面原位水资源获取技术与发展趋势

随着深空探测活动的持续推进,月球探测已成为开展行星际探测的重要部分.月球原位资源利用是保障载人月球探测及月面长期驻留的关键技术途径,中国已将月面原位水获取方法列为月球探测的关键技术之一.月面原位水获取方法主要分为极区水冰勘探开采和月壤氢还原制水两种技术途径.现有勘探到的水冰资源主要位于月球极区,分布不均匀,开采难度大.目前研究提出了多种不同类型的极区水冰勘探开采方法,但实际效果有待月面原位试验验证.月壤加氢还原制水技术方法工作条件不受区域限制,应用范围较广,但仍存在反应条件要求高、能耗大等技术限制,未来需在节能和有效矿物成分富集等方面有所突破.

冰晶石-月壤熔盐体系初晶温度的研究

冰晶石熔盐电解法可实现月壤原位利用制备金属和氧气,研究冰晶石-月壤熔盐体系的初晶温度对电解槽稳定运行具有重要意义。本文以火山渣和玄武岩复配的NEU-1月壤仿真样为原料,与冰晶石、CaF_(2)混合配置电解质,将其作为待测试样,利用差热分析法测量了不同月壤仿真样添加量、不同分子比的冰晶石熔盐体系的初晶温度。结果表明,当分子比为2.2时,随着月壤仿真样添加量从0%增加至24%,冰晶石熔盐体系的初晶温度从974.9℃降低至932.0℃;每添加1%的月壤仿真样,冰晶石熔盐体系的初晶温度降低约1.79℃;当月壤仿真样添加量为8%时,随着分子比从2.2升高至2.7,冰晶石熔盐体系的初晶温度从960.0℃升高至979.4℃。

离散元法在月面建造力学分析中的研究及应用

【目的】为了深入了解月面建造过程中月壤的力学特性,评估月基装备性能,优化月面建造作业,开展离散元法(discrete element method,DEM)在月壤接触力学领域的应用调查研究,旨在利用离散元法为未来月球基地建设提供理论指导和技术支持。【研究现状】基于地质勘探、资源采集及运输、建造作业等月面原位建造任务场景,分析月壤颗粒的建模与参数标定,介绍月基装备与月壤的接触作用研究现状,概述离散元法在钻-壤作用模拟、铲-壤作用模拟、轮-壤作用模拟及足-壤作用模拟中的应用,探讨基于离散元法的天然月基承载力分析。【结论与展望】提出降低几何模型复杂度、优化粒间接触模型及参数是提高宏观尺度月壤离散元建模精度以应对大规模月面建造场景的有效方法。认为利用离散元法进行铲挖式月壤采集装置及足式月球车设计在未来可以为月面建造提供可靠的技术支持。面向月面建造,离散元法将在水冰资源利用、建筑物月面承载力分析等方面提供科学依据。

改性水玻璃固化模拟月壤抗压性能试验与分析

为探究改性水玻璃模数、质量分数、固化温度、固化时间及养护龄期等因素影响下模拟月壤抗压强度的变化规律,基于正交试验分析了上述因素对固化模拟月壤抗压强度的敏感度,并通过X射线衍射(X-ray diffraction,XRD)和扫描电子显微镜(scanning electron microscope,SEM)扫描试验探讨了改性水玻璃对模拟月壤的固化机理。正交试验结果表明:合适的影响因素水平能提高模拟月壤的抗压强度,养护龄期为28 d、激发剂模数为1.8、质量分数为50%、固化温度为65℃、固化时间为9 h时,抗压强度达到极值。微观试验结果表明:在激发剂模数为1.8、质量分数为50%条件下,改性水玻璃能提高水化硅铝酸钙凝胶产量,充填试样内部孔隙,使结构更加紧密,故模拟月壤抗压强度得到提高。

两种纤维加筋模拟月壤地聚合物动态劈裂试验研究

为了解纤维加筋模拟月壤的动态劈裂力学特性,选用聚丙烯纤维和玄武岩纤维制备了纤维加筋模拟月壤地聚合物圆盘试件,利用分离式霍普金森压杆(split Hopkinson pressure bar,SHPB)装置开展了冲击劈裂试验,并使用扫描电子显微镜观察地聚合物断裂面处纤维的分布排列情况。试验结果表明:当聚丙烯纤维掺量为0.4%时试件的劈裂拉伸强度达到最大,较未掺时提高22.9%~27.3%;相同纤维掺量下,聚丙烯纤维对试件劈裂拉伸强度的增益效果要优于玄武岩纤维;纤维掺量一定时,试件动态劈裂拉伸强度与冲击气压呈正相关,纤维对劈裂拉伸强度的增益效果与冲击气压呈负相关;试件在冲击荷载作用下沿轴向劈裂为相对完整的两半,纤维的掺入减小了试件的破坏程度,改善了脆性破坏;试件的劈裂破碎块度平均粒径随纤维掺量的增加而增大。研究结果为未来月球基地建造材料的选择提供参考。

面向月面原位制造/建造的月壤成型利用技术综述

月面资源原位利用技术对于我国月球探测任务的长期可持续发展具有重要意义,其中月面原位建造技术是月球基地建设和运维的支撑性技术,以月壤为原料的增材制造技术有望在未来月面原位建造/制造任务中发挥重要作用。本文针对国内外主要的月壤原位成型利用技术进行了详细调研及分类汇总,介绍了月表环境及月壤特性,从月面环境约束、月壤材料特性及工程实际需求出发,按照是否需要额外添加剂将月壤成型技术分为直接成型利用和间接成型利用两类技术,分别从技术原理、预处理方法、添加物种类、工艺条件、设备类型、成型速度、成型精度、能耗及后处理方法等方面阐述了相关技术及其优缺点,并且从未来月球探测任务中月面原位制造/建造的需求出发,结合各项技术的特点及不同的应用场景,提出了月壤原位成型利用技术的发展前景及应用建议。

月壤-柔性充气膜组合式防护层力热性能分析

面向未来月球驻人基地建设速度快、运输成本低、可靠性高的需求,提出了月壤-柔性充气膜组合式防护层结构与刚性舱体相结合的月球基地建造方案。该建造方案以柔性充气膜作为主体承力结构,下方放置刚性舱体。对柔性充气膜单元进行模态分析,探究柔性充气膜单元固有振动频率与内压、覆盖月壤的厚度的关系,通过调整防护层参数改变结构频率从而避免与月震发生共振;在柔性充气膜上覆盖松软月壤并烧结表层月壤,通过热学与辐射仿真分析,对松软月壤隔热效果与防护层屏蔽辐射效果进行模拟,确定二者厚度,并对隔热性能与物性参数的敏感性进行探究;通过力学分析,探究柔性充气膜在给定厚度防护层下的变形量与膜厚、内压、肋径的关系。计算与仿真结果表明,该建造方案可以有效应对月面粒子辐射、月震与大交变温差环境,结构具有良好的力学稳定性,可为未来月球基地建造方式提供参考。