Layer-block tectonics of Cenozoic basements and formation of intra-plate basins in Nansha micro-plate, southern South China Sea

Layer-block tectonics （LBT） concept, with the core of pluralistic geodynamic outlook and multilayer-sliding tectonic outlook, is one of new keys to study 3-dimensional solid and its 4-dimensional evolution history of global tectonic system controlled by global geodynamics system. The LBT concept is applied to study the lithospheric tectonics of the southern South China Sea （SCS）. Based on the analysis of about 30 000 km of geophysical and geological data, some layer-blocks in the Nansha micro-plate can be divided as Nansha ultra-crustal layer-block, Zengmu crustal layer-block, Nanwei （Rifleman bank）-Andu （Ardasier bank） and Liyue （Reed bank） North Palawan crustal layer-blocks, Andu-Bisheng and Liyue-Banyue basemental layer-blocks. The basic characteristics of the basemental layer-blocks have been dicussed, and three intra-plate basin groups are identified. The intra-plate basins within Nansha micro-plate can be divided into three basin groups of Nanwei- Andu, Feixin-Nanhua, and Liyue-North Palawan based on the different geodynamics. In the light of pluralistic geodynamic concept, the upheaving force induced by the mid-crust plastic layer is proposed as the main dynamical force which causes the formation of the intra-plate basins within the Nansha micro-plate. Finally, models of a face-to-face dip-slip detachment of basemental layerblock and a unilateral dip-slip-detachment of basemental layer-block are put forward for the forming mechanisms of the Nanwei Andu and Liyue-North Palawan intra-plate basin groups, respectively.

Vulnerability Assessment of Tourism Environment in the South China Sea Islands : Construction of Evaluation Model Based on Interpretation System of Formation Mechanism

Tourism vulnerability research is an important theoretical basis for sustainable research of tourism.In this study,it hopes to establish a comprehensive evaluation index system for vulnerability of tourism environment in the South China Sea Islands,to achieve the sound development of island tourism in the South China Sea.Therefore,based on the study of the geographical environment and geographical background of the South China Sea Islands,the mechanism analysis method is used to form three interpretation systems.First,interpretation system of meridional causality mechanism.4 evaluation levels and 52 indicators are screened out,and the mathematical and physical criteria for each indicator is established.Second,interpretation system of latitudinal factor relationship mechanism.The AHP is used to obtain the weights of each index,and the contribution rate of factor at each level to the vulnerability is determined.Third,sharing platform of connecting meridional and latitudinal interpretation system.Likert 5-level scale is used to make the factors belong to different orders of magnitude,and factors from different systems could be comparable.Finally,through the formulation of mathematical and chemical standards of indexes and weights of evaluation indexes,a comprehensive evaluation model for vulnerability of tourism environment in the South China Sea Islands is established.

Submarine Landslides on the North Continental Slope of the South China Sea

Recent and paleo-submarine landslides are widely distributed within strata in deep-water areas along continental slopes, uplifts, and carbonate platforms on the north continental margin of the South China Sea(SCS). In this paper, high-resolution 3D seismic data and multibeam data based on seismic sedimentology and geomorphology are employed to assist in identifying submarine landslides. In addition, deposition models are proposed that are based on specific geological structures and features, and which illustrate the local stress field over entire submarine landslides in deep-water areas of the SCS. The SCS is one of the largest fluvial sediment sinks in enclosed or semi-enclosed marginal seas worldwide. It therefore provides a set of preconditions for the formation of submarine landslides, including rapid sediment accumulation, formation of gas hydrates, and fluid overpressure. A new concept involving temporal and spatial analyses is tested to construct a relationship between submarine landslides and different time scale trigger mechanisms, and three mechanisms are discussed in the context of spatial scale and temporal frequency: evolution of slope gradient and overpressure, global environmental changes, and tectonic events. Submarine landslides that are triggered by tectonic events are the largest but occur less frequently, while submarine landslides triggered by the combination of slope gradient and overpressure evolution are the smallest but most frequently occurring events. In summary, analysis shows that the formation of submarine landslides is a complex process involving the operation of different factors on various time scales.

Mass movements in small canyons in the northeast of Baiyun deepwater area, north of the South China Sea

The process of mass movements and their consequent turbidity currents in large submarine canyons has been widely reported, however, little attention was paid to that in small canyons. In this paper, we document mass movements in small submarine canyons in the northeast of Baiyun deepwater area, north of the South China Sea （SCS）, and their strong effects on the evolution of the canyons based on geophysical data. Submarine canyons in the study area arrange closely below the shelf break zone which was at the depth of -500 m. Within submarine canyons, seabed surface was covered with amounts of failure scars resulted from past small-sized landslides. A complex process of mass transportation in the canyons is indicated by three directions of mass movements. Recent mass movement deposits in the canyons exhibit translucent reflections or parallel reflections which represent the brittle deformation and the plastic deformation, respectively. The area of most landslides in the canyons is less than 3 km2. The trigger mechanisms for mass movements in the study area are gravitational overloading, slope angle and weak properties of soil. Geophysical data indicate that the genesis of submarine canyons is the erosion of mass movements and consequent turbidity currents. The significant effects of mass movements on canyon are incision and sediment transportation at the erosion phases and fillings supply at the fill phases. This research will be helpful for the geological risk assessments and understanding the sediment transportation in the northern margin of the SCS.

Expansion of the South China Sea basin:Constraints from magnetic anomaly stripes,sea floor topography,satellite gravity and submarine geothermics

The widely distributed E-W-trending magnetic anomaly stripes in the central basin and the N-Etrending magnetic anomaly stripes in the southwest sub-basin provide the most important evidence for Neogene expansion of the South China Sea.The expansion mechanism remains,however,controversial because of the lack of direct drilling data,non-systematic marine magnetic survey data,and irregular magnetic anomaly stripes with two obvious directions.For example,researchers have inferred different ages and episodes of expansion for the central basin and southwest sub-basin.Major controversy centers on the order of basinal expansion and the mechanism of expansion for the entire South China Sea basin.This study attempts to constrain these problems from a comprehensive analysis of the seafloor topography,magnetic anomaly stripes,regional aeromagnetic data,satellite gravity,and submarine geothermics.The mapped seafloor terrain shows that the central basin is a north-south rectangle that is relatively shallow with many seamounts,whereas the southwest sub-basin is wide in northeast,gradually narrows to the southwest,and is relatively deeper with fewer seamounts.Many magnetic anomaly stripes are present in the central basin with variable dimensions and directions that are dominantly EWtrending,followed by the NE-,NW- and NS-trending.Conversely such stripes are few in the southwest sub-basin and mainly NE-trending.Regional magnetic data suggest that the NW-trending Ailaoshan-Red River fault extends into the South China Sea,links with the central fault zone in the South China Sea,which extends further southward to Reed Tablemount.Satellite gravity data show that both the central basin and southwest sub-basin are composed of oceanic crust.The Changlong seamount is particularly visible in the southwest sub-basin and extends eastward to the Zhenbei seamount.Also a low gravity anomaly zone coincides with the central fault zone in the sub-basin.The submarine geothermic distribution demonstrates that the southwest sub-basin has a higher geothermal value than the central basin,and that the central fault zone is defined by a low thermal anomaly.This study suggests that NW-SE expansion of the southwest subbasin is later than the N-S expansion of the central basin with the sub-basin extending into the central basin and with both expansions ending at the same time.The expansion of southwestern sub-basin,similar to the Japanese Sea,is likely caused by left-lateral strike slip on the central fault zone in the South China Sea,which may have significance for finding oil and gas in this region.

Seismic Characteristics and Hydrocarbon Accumulation Associated with Mud Diapir Structures in a Superimposed Basin in the Southern South China Sea Margin

Mud diapirs are significant structures often associated with hydrocarbon migration and accumulation as well as gas hydrate formation in sedimentary basins.A total of 30 mud diapirs were observed in the northwestern Zengmu Basin in the southern South China Sea based on 2D multichannel seismic data.The structures are distributed along an NW-SE trend near the shelf break of the Kangxi depression in the Zengmu Basin.The mud diapirs were divided into the following according to their vertical shapes,intrusion heights,and effusive activities:tortoise,piercing,and nozzle types,which represent different evolutionary stages of diapirism.The mud diapirs in the study area suggest that the driving forces behind the mud diapirs considerably exceed the rock rupture limit of the overlying strata.Diapir formation can be divided into two steps:the accommodation of a large amount of mud in the Zengmu Basin and the movement of plastic mud induced by gravity-driven flow and regional tectonic compression.Combining seismic interpretations with analyses of the regional geology and tectonic subsidence,the current study proposes that rapid subsidence in the Kangxi depression sufficiently accommodated the vast amount of sediments deposited since the Middle Miocene,which provided favorable conditions for the growth of mud diapirs.Furthermore,the N-S directional stress field in the Zengmu Basin and the gravity slide northward along the southern slope of the depression further facilitated the development of mud diapirs since the late Miocene.The mud diapirs in the southern South China Sea margins were accompanied by the accumulation and release of overpressured fluid.

Hydrate phase transition and seepage mechanism during natural gas hydrates production tests in the South China Sea:A review and prospect

Natural gas hydrates(NGHs)are globally recognized as an important type of strategic alternative energy due to their high combustion efficiency,cleanness,and large amounts of resources.The NGHs reservoirs in the South China Sea(SCS)mainly consist of clayey silts.NGHs reservoirs of this type boast the largest distribution range and the highest percentage of resources among NGHs reservoirs in the world.However,they are more difficult to exploit than sandy reservoirs.The China Geological Survey successfully carried out two NGHs production tests in the Shenhu Area in the northern SCS in 2017 and 2020,setting multiple world records,such as the longest gas production time,the highest total gas production,and the highest average daily gas production,as well as achieving a series of innovative theoretical results.As suggested by the in-depth research on the two production tests,key factors that restrict the gas production efficiency of hydrate dissociation include reservoir structure characterization,hydrate phase transition,multiphase seepage and permeability enhancement,and the simulation and regulation of production capacity,among which the hydrate phase transition and seepage mechanism are crucial.Study results reveal that the hydrate phase transition in the SCS is characterized by low dissociation temperature,is prone to produce secondary hydrates in the reservoirs,and is a complex process under the combined effects of the seepage,stress,temperature,and chemical fields.The multiphase seepage is controlled by multiple factors such as the physical properties of unconsolidated reservoirs,the hydrate phase transition,and exploitation methods and is characterized by strong methane adsorption,abrupt changes in absolute permeability,and the weak flow capacity of gas.To ensure the long-term,stable,and efficient NGHs exploitation in the SCS,it is necessary to further enhance the reservoir seepage capacity and increase gas production through secondary reservoir stimulation based on initial reservoir stimulation.With the constant progress in the NGHs industrialization,great efforts should be made to tackle the difficulties,such as determining the micro-change in temperature and pressure,the response mechanisms of material-energy exchange,the methods for efficient NGHs dissociation,and the boundary conditions for the formation of secondary hydrates in the large-scale,long-term gas production.

Tectonic Evolution and Dynamics of Deepwater Area of Pearl River Mouth Basin, Northern South China Sea

Quantitative studies on the evolution and dynamics of the deepwater area of Pearl River Mouth basin （PRMB） were carried out based on the latest geological and seismic data. The study area is generally in an extensional state during the Cenozoic. The major extension happened in the earlier syn-rift stages before 23 Ma and the extension after 23 Ma is negligible. Two rapid subsidence periods, 32-23 Ma and 5.3-2.6 Ma, are identified, which are related to the abrupt heat decay during margin breakup and the collision between the Philippine Sea plate and the Eurasian plate, respectively. The strongest crustal thinning in the Baiyun （白云） sag may trigger the syn-rift volcanism along the weak faulted belt around the sag. The Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the study area could be divided into five stages： rifting （～50-40 Ma）, rift-drift transition （～40-32 Ma）, early post-breakup （～32-23 Ma）, thermal subsidence （～23-5.3 Ma） and neotectonic movement （～5.3-0 Ma）.

Calcareous nannofossil changes in the Early Oligocene linked to nutrient and atmospheric CO2

Rapid changes on nutrient supply and CO2 concentration that occurred in the northern South China Sea(SCS)during the Early Oligocene,provides an ideal natural laboratory,allowing us to peer into the coccolithophores’physiology in the geological records.In this study,we established a new nannofossil assemblage index,termed as E^*ratio,which is calculated by the relative abundance of eutrophic taxa and meso-oligotrophic taxa(E^*=e/e+c,where e is eutrophic taxa,and c is meso-oligotrophic taxa)Eutrophic taxa include small Reticulofenestra,Reticulofenestra lockeri group,Reticulofenestra bisecta group and Coccolithus pelagicus group,while meso-oligotrophic taxa include Cyclicargolithus spp.The E^*ratio is well correlated with nutrient proxy during the Early Oligocene,while with different covarying patterns under the higher and lower CO2 condition.By comparing the assemblage changes to the published data,we suggest that coccolithophores may change the way they use carbon source and nutrient with the decline of CO2.Furthermore,this implies a possible initiation of the carbon concentrating mechanism.

Design and feasibility analysis of a new completion monitoring technical scheme for natural gas hydrate production tests

As a prerequisite and a guarantee for safe and efficient natural gas hydrates(NGHs)exploitation,it is imperative to effectively determine the mechanical properties of NGHs reservoirs and clarify the law of the change in the mechanical properties with the dissociation of NGHs during NGHs production tests by depressurization.Based on the development of Japan’s two offshore NGHs production tests in vertical wells,this study innovatively proposed a new subsea communication technology-accurate directional connection using a wet-mate connector.This helps to overcome the technical barrier to the communication between the upper and lower completion of offshore wells.Using this new communication technology,this study explored and designed a mechanical monitoring scheme for lower completion(sand screens).This scheme can be used to monitor the tensile stress and radial compressive stress of sand screens caused by NGHs reservoirs in real time,thus promoting the technical development for the rapid assessment and real-time feedback of the in-situ mechanical response of NGHs reservoirs during offshore NGHs production tests by depressurization.

从陆缘伸展探讨新生代南海构造演化

南海的形成和演化是地学界长期争论的问题,前人给出了多种成因模式,目前较流行的模式是海底扩张,但它难以合理解释南海海底扩张中的洋中脊跳跃现象及南海大洋中的大陆残片。基于欧亚东缘的陆缘伸展,从地幔上涌和陆壳沿莫霍面的重力滑移的新大陆漂移模型出发,通过横跨南海的几条地震勘探剖面的地质新解释,研究了南海的形成和演化过程。结果说明,南海的形成是一种“构造被动挤出+微陆块主动漂移”模式。构造被动挤出是指印度-欧亚碰撞造成的欧亚大陆东南缘的微陆块被大规模挤出,而由陆缘伸展形成的微陆块在被挤出后发生了主动裂解漂移,南海的海底扩张现象是诸多微陆块主动漂移的结果。这个新的模式能够合理地解释南海形成过程中的洋中脊跳跃现象及南海中大陆残片的成因机制。进一步恢复了南海演化过程中周边陆块的运动演化历史,说明欧亚东缘在中生代晚期发生的大规模伸展构造运动是南海形成的基础,新生代印度-欧亚碰撞是南海形成的直接动力,微陆块的裂解漂移是南海形成的主要参与者。

南海北部被动陆缘洋陆转换带张裂–破裂研究新进展

文章基于深地震探测数据与大洋钻探资料,研究了南海北部被动陆缘洋陆转换带张裂–破裂机制科学问题。2018-2023年在国家基金委共享航次的协助下,实施了三维深地震探测实验,共投放海底地震仪52台次,海底电磁仪2台次,放炮数量达8750炮,累积获得了294Gb的第一手数据,并取得了一系列的创新性成果:1)首次获得南海北部陆缘洋陆转换带深达上地幔的三维速度结构,精准确定了研究区洋陆转换带三维空间展布范围宽度为10~20km;2)揭示南海北部陆缘异常活跃的岩浆作用,提出了不同时间段的构造与岩浆相互作用方式,岩浆活动随着伸展作用不断向洋迁移并逐渐占据主导地位;3)建立了边缘海独特的张裂–破裂地质演化模型,最后一期强烈的岩浆活动导致岩石圈破裂,形成由玄武岩为主的“鳄鱼嘴”构造,同时张裂–破裂过程沿其陆缘走向又存在显著的构造–岩浆差异性。

中国油气建设和油气消费与缺口的实证分析——兼论南海油气跨期开发资金需求的预测

世界百年之未有大变局之下,夯实我国能源开发基础,保障能源安全至关重要。我国南海蕴藏着丰富的石油天然气资源,南海油气跨期开发有利于增加油气供给,保障能源安全。本文着眼油气建设,运用面板数据模型,实证分析了省域层面油气建设和油气消费及经济增长的相关关系;运用协整分析,揭示了全国层面油气建设和油气缺口既存在互补关系,又存在替代关系,指出替代关系威胁我国能源安全。基于南海油气跨期开发目标模型,构建了缺口—投资模型,预测了为实现南海油气跨期开发目标的国有经济石油和天然气开采业年度固定资产投资规模,进而探讨实现这一目标的财政金融支持机制,包括制定南海油气建设转移支付专项资金制度、创建针对南海资源勘探、开发的公司债和基金等。

国际法视角下南海渔业区域合作机制的构建

长期的领土主权和海域界限的纷争、联合国海洋公约制度方面的缺陷、渔业执法合作法律基础薄弱等原因,使南海渔业区域合作机制的构建面临着重重阻碍。目前南海渔业资源正处于衰退期,国内外渔业发展环境不够稳定,构建区域合作机制,对于南海渔业经济的可持续发展意义重大。文章主要从国际法视角出发,剖析南海渔业面临的主要问题,进一步说明南海渔业区域合作机制的必要性及可行性。最后,从构建南海渔业合作机制的思路出发,为南海区域合作经济的发展提供一些方向指南。

马尼拉海沟增生楔北部海域天然气水合物成藏机制及其潜在地质灾害风险

天然气水合物由于其巨大的资源潜力而受到广泛关注,但以往研究多集中在南海北部海域被动陆缘,对南海东部主动陆缘的天然气水合物关注相对较少。本文基于南海东北部马尼拉海沟主动陆缘区多道地震剖面分析,识别出似海底反射、振幅空白带、极性反转等典型天然气水合物识别标志以及逆断层、泥底辟等流体运移通道。台湾西南部造山带是马尼拉海沟增生楔的延伸,其泥火山伴生气以CH_(4)为主,少部分表现出高氮异常;其地球化学特征表明,该区天然气主要为热解成因的成熟烃类气,且主要是新近纪巨厚海相沉积烃源岩的贡献。分析认为,其成因是板块俯冲运动将深部烃类物质带入增生楔内,并形成高压环境,热成因烃类气体沿着泥底辟和逆断层等通道向上运移,在运移过程中部分天然气被微生物逐步改造,并混合原位生物气。热成因和生物成因甲烷最终在合适的稳定带内混合;形成以热成因为主,部分具有生物成因特征的逆冲推覆控藏混合气源天然气水合物藏。另外,随着外界环境的变化及俯冲运动的持续活动,天然气水合物的稳定条件遭到破坏而发生分解渗漏,可能引起滑坡,在对本区天然气水合物资源进一步的勘探开发过程中必须注意其潜在地质灾害风险。

南海不同沉积环境黄铁矿的矿物学及原位微区地球化学研究

黄铁矿是沉积物和沉积岩中的常见矿物,其地球化学特征能够明确指示周围的沉积环境。然而,黄铁矿地球化学特征的差异性及形成过程中的控制因素尚不清楚。本研究利用扫描电镜和激光剥蚀电感耦合等离子体质谱对南海不同沉积环境黄铁矿形貌和原位微区主微量元素特征进行了研究。结果表明,SH-CL38站位黄铁矿含量与δ^(34)S值呈镜像关系,代表了正常海洋沉积环境下形成的黄铁矿受有机碎屑硫酸盐还原作用的控制;而F站位碳酸盐颗粒极低的δ^(13)C值(-45.55‰)表明该站位发育甲烷渗漏,黄铁矿的形成与硫酸盐驱动的甲烷厌氧氧化过程有关。2个站位黄铁矿微区的地球化学分布明显存在差异:SH-CL38站位黄铁矿的Mn、Co、Ni、Mo和Sb含量相对于F站位含量高,可能是铁锰(氢)氧化物的还原性溶解导致的;而F站位黄铁矿的Cu、V、As和Cd含量相对于SH-CL38站位高,可能是受到有机质矿化作用的影响。黄铁矿颗粒的Ca和Mg含量表明F站位的甲烷渗漏条件下由于优先沉淀了低Mg高Ca的自生方解石,导致后期沉淀的黄铁矿具有高Mg低Ca特征。2种不同沉积环境中黄铁矿的形貌特征和微量元素含量的差异表明黄铁矿的矿物学和地球化学特征可以用来识别甲烷渗漏。

从南海到“印太”:美日菲三边合作机制化及威慑效用

在美国联合盟友不断推进“印太战略”和“一体化威慑”以服务其大国战略竞争议程的过程中,一系列“三边”或“四边”安全合作机制的发展及其构成的“小多边主义”军事威慑影响力日增。作为新的战略前沿,美国联合日菲两国,共同推进三边合作机制化,试图相对稳定和长久地威慑中国并“塑造中国的周边环境”。具体而言,随着美日菲三边合作走向机制化,其不再局限于在南海深化对中国的“强加成本威慑”和“灰色地带威慑”,而是逐步强化以中国台湾岛为中心的“第一岛链”并意图通过联合澳大利亚组成“美日菲澳”四方机制等部署与其他“岛链”相链接,提升对华“拒止性威慑”和“韧性威慑”。同时,通过军事安全与经济安全的复合架构,在更广泛的印太地区加强威慑力量、使用力量的决心和威慑信息的“网络化”传递。在此过程中,其威慑效用呈现出从南海向印太地区的扩散趋势。然而,其在威慑力量、使用力量的决心和威慑信息的传递等三个方面也将受到一系列因素的制约。即便如此,此种旨在严密封锁中国“向海图强”的基于威慑的战略协调,值得中国高度警惕。

南海碳汇交易治理的规范现状及法制方案

作为蓝碳交易先行区的经验,南海碳汇交易治理的规范对健全碳市场交易制度具有重要意义。实证的数据显示南海碳汇交易规范现状面临以下来问题:低位阶法规范或技术规范被普遍适用、我国规范未在治理中普遍适用、域外规范反而在我国治理中被产生路径依赖。问题形成的关键是,南海碳汇交易治理造成了法规范效力的“三个失灵”,即治理模式导致法规范效力位阶“失灵”、治理路径导致法规范效力范围“失灵”、治理主体导致法规范效力认定标准“失灵”。解决问题的关键是完善法制,以使法规范符合南海碳汇交易治理。法制方案分为两个层次:一是围绕理念规范、主体规范和责任规范构建规范内容体系。二是围绕多国主体协商的责任规则、国家干预的责任规则和市场运行的责任规则构建具体的责任规范。

疏松砂岩储层化学稳砂剂性能评价及抑砂机理研究

南海西部油田疏松砂岩储层自身胶结疏松易出砂,开发中后期随着含水的升高,敏感性矿物遇水膨胀、分散运移,尤其采取换大泵提液措施后,进一步加大生产压差,导致储层出砂影响油井产能。针对稳砂剂ZJ-1开展了相关实验研究,结果表明该体系具有较好抑砂性能:砂样经过稳砂剂处理后粒径增加幅度较大,稳砂剂处理后的粒径中值为空白样粒径中值的7.3倍;砂床滤失实验中,与空白样相比,稳砂剂处理后滤液澄清得多、浊度值小得多;填砂管驱替实验中,稳砂剂处理前出砂量较多,计算出砂率为3.873%,稳砂剂处理后出砂量较少,计算出砂率为0.045%,满足海上油田电泵井正产生产出砂要求。通过显微镜观察实验和扫描电镜实验,分析揭示了稳砂剂ZJ-1的抑砂机理。相关研究成果为类似储层化学防砂稳产具有重要指导意义。

南海扩张的动力学因素及其数值模拟讨论

由于南海处于欧亚板块、太平洋板块和印度-澳大利亚板块的交汇区,演化历史十分复杂,历来存在多种成因观点的争论。本文采用数值模拟方法,在XiaBinetal.(2005)、夏斌等(2004)、崔学军等(2005)、谢建华等(2005)相关工作基础上,对南海扩张机制进行了进一步探讨,并针对南海地区“近南北向水平拉张”南海扩张的贡献大小,以及“近南北向水平拉张”与“地幔上涌”在南海扩张中作用的相互关系进行了数值模拟实验。结果表明由印度-欧亚板块碰撞和太平洋板块向欧亚板块俯冲的共同作用,所导致的“南北向构造拉张”和“地幔上涌”的共同作用能有效引起岩石圈和地壳两者很大程度的减薄。因此认为这种“南北向构造拉张”和“地幔上涌”的共同作用方式最有利于南海的扩张。