Experimental study of the influencing factors and mechanisms of the pressure-reduction and augmented injection effect by nanoparticles in ultra-low permeability reservoirs

Nanoparticles(NPs)have gained significant attention as a functional material due to their ability to effectively enhance pressure reduction in injection processes in ultra-low permeability reservoirs.NPs are typically studied in controlled laboratory conditions,and their behavior in real-world,complex environments such as ultra-low permeability reservoirs,is not well understood due to the limited scope of their applications.This study investigates the efficacy and underlying mechanisms of NPs in decreasing injection pressure under various injection conditions(25—85℃,10—25 MPa).The results reveal that under optimal injection conditions,NPs effectively reduce injection pressure by a maximum of 22.77%in core experiment.The pressure reduction rate is found to be positively correlated with oil saturation and permeability,and negatively correlated with temperature and salinity.Furthermore,particle image velocimetry(PIV)experiments(25℃,atmospheric pressure)indicate that the pressure reduction is achieved by NPs through the reduction of wall shear resistance and wettability change.This work has important implications for the design of water injection strategies in ultra-low permeability reservoirs.

Optimization of Gas-Flooding Fracturing Development in Ultra-Low Permeability Reservoirs

Ultra-low permeability reservoirs are characterized by small pore throats and poor physical properties, which areat the root of well-known problems related to injection and production. In this study, a gas injection floodingapproach is analyzed in the framework of numerical simulations. In particular, the sequence and timing of fracturechanneling and the related impact on production are considered for horizontal wells with different fracturemorphologies. Useful data and information are provided about the regulation of gas channeling and possible strategiesto delay gas channeling and optimize the gas injection volume and fracture parameters. It is shown that inorder to mitigate gas channeling and ensure high production, fracture length on the sides can be controlled andlonger fractures can be created in the middle by which full gas flooding is obtained at the fracture location in themiddle of the horizontal well. A Differential Evolution (DE) algorithm is provided by which the gas injectionvolume and the fracture parameters of gas injection flooding can be optimized. It is shown that an improvedoil recovery factor as high as 6% can be obtained.

Profile improvement during CO_2 flooding in ultra-low permeability reservoirs

Gas flooding such as CO2 flooding may be effectively applied to ultra-low permeability reservoirs, but gas channeling is inevitable due to low viscosity and high mobility of gas and formation heterogeneity. In order to mitigate or prevent gas channeling, ethylenediamine is chosen for permeability profile control. The reaction mechanism of ethylenediamine with CO2, injection performance, swept volume, and enhanced oil recovery were systematically evaluated. The reaction product of ethylenediamine and CO2 was a white solid or a light yellow viscous liquid, which would mitigate or prevent gas channeling. Also, ethylenediamine could be easily injected into ultra-low permeability cores at high temperature with protective ethanol slugs. The core was swept by injection of 0.3 PV ethylenediamine. Oil displacement tests performed on heterogeneous models with closed fractures, oil recovery was significantly enhanced with injection of ethylenediamine. Experimental results showed that using ethylenediamine to plug high permeability layers would provide a new research idea for the gas injection in fractured, heterogeneous and ultra-low permeability reservoirs. This technology has the potential to be widely applied in oilfields.

The tectonic fracture modeling of an ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir based on an outcrop analogy: A case study in the Wangyao Oilfield of Ordos Basin, China

Due to inherent limits of data acquisition and geophysical data resolution, there are large uncertainties in the characterization of subsurface fractures. However, outcrop analogies can provide qualitative and quantitative information on a large number of fractures, based on which the accuracy of subsurface fracture characterization can be improved. Here we take the tectonic fracture modeling of an ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir based on an outcrop analogy, a case study of the Chang6t~ Formation of the Upper Triassic Yanchang Group of the Wangyao Oilfield in the Ordos Basin of China. An outcrop at the edge of the basin is a suitable analog for the reservoir, but the prerequisite is that they must have equivalent previous stress fields, similar final structural characteristics, relative timing and an identical depositional environment and diagenesis. The relationship among fracture density, rock type and bed thickness based on the outcrop is one of the most important fracture distribution models, and can be used to interpret fracture density in individual wells quantitatively. Fracture orientation, dip, geometry and scale, also should be described and measured in the outcrop, and can be used together with structure restoration and single well fracture density interpretation to guide fracture intensity prediction on bed surfaces and to constrain the construction of the 3D fracture geometry model of the subsurface reservoir. The application of the above principles shows the outcrop-based tectonic fracture models of the target ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir are consistent with fractures inferred from microseismic interpretation and tracer tests. This illustrated that the fracture modeling based on the outcrop analogy is reliable and can reduce the uncertainty in stochastic fracture modeling.

On the Development of an Effective Pressure Driving System for Ultra-Low Permeability Reservoirs

Given its relevance to the exploitation of ultra-low permeability reservoirs,which account for a substantial proportion of the world’s exploited and still unexploited reserves,in the present study the development of an adequate water injection system is considered.Due to the poor properties and weak seepage capacity of these reservoirs,the water injection pressure typically increases continuously during water flooding.In this research,the impact on such a process of factors as permeability,row spacing,and pressure gradient is evaluated experimentally using a high-pressure large-scale outcrop model.On this basis,a comprehensive evaluation coefficient is introduced able to account for the effective driving pressure.

Determination of microscopic waterflooding characteristics and influence factors in ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir

Actual sandstone micromodel was used in this work to conduct the microscopic waterflooding experiment of ultra-low sandstone reservoir,since the inside seepage characteristics of microscopic waterflooding process of Chang 8 ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir of Upper Triassic Yanchang formation in Huaqing region of the Ordos Basin,China is difficult to observe directly.Combined with physical property,casting thin sections,constant-rate mercury injection capillary pressure and nuclear magnetic resonance,the influence of reservoir property on the waterflooding characteristics in pores were analyzed and evaluated.Seepage paths of waterflooding characteristics were divided into four types:homogeneous seepage,reticular-homogeneous seepage,finger-reticular seepage and finger-like seepage,the waterflooding efficiency of which decreases in turn.More than 70%of residual oil occurs as flowing-around seepage and oil film.Physical property,pore structure and movable fluid characteristics are all controlled by digenesis and their impacts on waterflooding efficiency are in accordance.Generally,the pore throat radius size and distribution and movable fluid percentage are closely related to waterflooding law.

Method of moderate water injection and its application in ultra-low permeability oil reservoirs of Yanchang Oilfield, NW China

To explore the method of improving development effect and solving the problem of water breakthrough and water out for ultralow permeability fractured reservoirs, an indoor evaluation method of dynamic imbibition for fracture-matrix system was established taking the Chang 8 reservoir in southern Yanchang Oilfield as a research target. Key factors for the imbibition effect were obtained, an imbibition's rate expression was obtained, a model considering the double effects of imbibition-displacement was built and optimal injection and production parameters for the research area were obtained as well. The results show that an optimum displacement rate that maximizes the oil displacement efficiency exists in the water displacing oil process, and the optimal displacing rate becomes smaller as the permeability decreases. The imbibition displacement efficiency increases as the reservoir quality index and water wettability index of rock become bigger. But the larger the initial water saturation or oil-water viscosity ratio is, the smaller the imbibition displacement efficiency is. The optimal injection-production ratio for the Chang 8 reservoir of southern Yanchang Oilfield is 0.95, and the predicted recovery is 17.2% when the water cut is 95%, it is 2.9% higher than the recovery of conventional injection-production ratio 1.2. By using the moderate water injection technique based on the double effects of imbibition-displacement mechanism, the water injection development effect for the ultra-low permeability fractured reservoirs can be improved significantly.

The control effect of low-amplitude structure on oil-gaswater enrichment and development performance of ultra-low permeability reservoirs

Based on drilling, logging, test production and dynamic monitoring data, the control effects of low-amplitude structure on hydrocarbon accumulation and development performance of ultra-low permeability reservoirs were discussed by using the methods of dense well pattern, multi-factor geological modeling, macro and micro analysis and static and dynamic analysis. The results show that the low-amplitude structure always had a significant control and influence on the distribution and accumulation of original hydrocarbon and water and the evolution trend of water flooding performance in ultra-low permeability reservoirs, and it was not only the direction of oil and gas migration, but also a favorable place for relative accumulation of oil and gas. The controlling effect of low-amplitude structure on ultra-low permeability reservoir mainly depended on its tectonic amplitude and scale;the larger the tectonic amplitude and scale, and the higher the tectonic position of the low amplitude structure, the better the reservoir characteristic parameters, oil and gas enrichment degree and development effect, and the larger the spatial scope it controlled and influenced;water cut and oil well output always fluctuated orderly with the height of the low-amplitude structure;the dynamic response of waterflooding was closely related to the relative structural position of the injection and production wells;the injected water always advanced to the low-lying area of the structure first and then moved up to the high-lying area of the structure gradually;with the continuous expansion of the flooded area, part of the oil and gas in the low-lying part of the structure was forced to be distributed to the high part of the structure, resulting in a new oil and gas enrichment, so that the dynamic reserves of oil wells in the high part increased, and the production capacity remained stable.

A quantitative evaluation for well pattern adaptability in ultra-low permeability oil reservoirs:A case study of Triassic Chang 6 and Chang 8 reservoirs in Ordos Basin

Based on the previous studies and development practice in recent 10 years, a quantitative evaluation method for the adaptability of well patterns to ultra-low permeability reservoirs was established using cluster analysis and gray correlation method, and it includes 10 evaluation parameters in the four aspects of optimal evaluation parameters, determination of weights for evaluation parameters, development stage division, and determination of classification coefficients. This evaluation method was used to evaluate the well pattern adaptability of 13 main ultra-low permeability reservoirs in Triassic Chang 6 and Chang 8 of Ordos Basin. Three basic understandings were obtained: Firstly, the well pattern for ultra-low permeability type-I reservoirs has generally good adaptability, with proper well pattern forms and well pattern parameters. Secondly, square inverted nine-spot well pattern is suitable for reservoirs with no fractures; rhombic inverted nine-spot injection pattern is suitable for reservoirs with some fractures; and rectangular well pattern is suitable for reservoirs with rich fractures. Thirdly, for the ultra-low permeability type-Ⅱ and type-Ⅲ reservoirs, with the principles of well pattern form determination, the row spacing needs to be optimized further to improve the level of development of such reservoirs.

Imbibition mechanisms of high temperature resistant microemulsion system in ultra-low permeability and tight reservoirs

Lower-phase microemulsions with core-shell structure were prepared by microemulsion dilution method.The high temperature resistant systems were screened and the performance evaluation experiments were conducted to clarify the spontaneous imbibition mechanisms in ultra-low permeability and tight oil reservoirs,and to direct the field microfracture huff and puff test of oil well.The microemulsion system(O-ME)with cationic-nonionic surfactant as hydrophilic shell,No.3 white oil as oil phase core has the highest imbibition recovery;its spontaneous imbibition mechanisms include:the ultra-low interfacial tension and wettability reversal significantly reduce oil adhesion work to improve oil displacement efficiency,the nanoscale“core-shell structure”formed can easily enter micro-nano pores and throats to expand the swept volume,in addition,the remarkable effect of dispersing and solubilizing crude oil can improve the mobility of crude oil.Based on the experimental results,a microfracture huff and puff test of O-ME was carried out in Well YBD43-X506 of Shengli Oilfield.After being treated,the well had a significant increase of daily fluid production to 5 tons from 1.4 tons,and an increase of daily oil production to 2.7 tons from 1.0 ton before treatment.

Synchronous injection-production energy replenishment for a horizontal well in an ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir: A case study of Changqing oilfield in Ordos Basin, NW China

It is difficult to build an effective water flooding displacement pressure system in the middle section of a horizontal well in an ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir.To solve this problem,this study proposes to use packers,sealing cannula and other tools in the same horizontal well to inject water in some fractures and produce oil from other fractures.This new energy supplement method forms a segmental synchronous injection-production system in a horizontal well.The method can reduce the distance between the injection end and the production end,and quickly establish an effective displacement system.Changing the displacement between wells to displacement between horizontal well sections,and point water flooding to linear uniform water flooding,the method can enhance water sweeping volume and shorten waterflooding response period.The research shows that:(1)In the synchronous injection and production of horizontal well in an ultra-low-permeability sandstone reservoir,the water injection section should select the section where the natural fractures and artificial fractures are in the same direction or the section with no natural fractures,and the space between two sections should be 60?80 m.(2)In addition to controlling injection pressure,periodic water injection can be taken to reduce the risk of re-opening and growth of natural fractures or formation fracture caused by the gradual increase of water injection pressure with water injection going on.(3)Field tests have verified that this method can effectively improve the output of single well and achieve good economic benefits,so it can be widely used in the development of ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoirs.

The distribution rule and seepage effect of the fractures in the ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir in east Gansu Province,Ordos Basin

To study the impact of the fractures on development in the ultra-low permeability sandstone reservoir of the Yangchang Formation of the Upper Triassic in the Ordos Basin,data on outcrops,cores,slices,well logging and experiments are utilized to analyze the cause of the formation of the fractures,their distribution rules and the control factors and discuss the seepage flow effect of the fractures. In the studied area developed chiefly high-angle tectonic fractures and horizontal bedding fractures,inter-granular fractures and grain boundary fractures as well. Grain boundary fractures and intragranular fractures serve as vital channels linking intragranular pores and intergranular solution pores in the reservoir matrix,thus providing a good connectivity between the pores in the ultra-low perme-ability sandstone reservoir. The formation of fractures and their distribution are influenced by such external and internal factors as the palaeo-tectonic stress field,the reservoir lithological character,the thickness of the rock layer and the anisotropy of a layer. The present-day stress field influences the preservative state of fractures and their seepage flow effect. Under the tec-tonic effect of both the Yanshan and Himalayan periods,in this region four sets of fractures are distributed,respectively assuming the NE-SW,NW-SE,nearly E-W and nearly S-N orientations,but,due to the effect of the rock anisotropy of the rock formation,in some part of it two groups of nearly orthogonal fractures are chiefly distributed. Under the effect of the present-day stress field,the fractures that assume the NE-SW direction have a good connectivity,big apertures,a high permeability and a minimum starting pressure,all of which are main advantages of the seepage fractures in this region. With the development of oilfields,the permeability of the fractures of dif-ferent directions will have a dynamic change.

INVESTIGATION AND APPLICATION ON GAS-DRIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ULTRA-LOW PERMEABILITY RESERVOIRS

To select a proper displacement medium with the purpose of developing ultra-low permeability reservoirs both effectively and economically, three kinds of gases, including CO2, NG and N2, are studied through physical modeling and numerical simulation under the specified reservoir conditions. The results indicate that the oil recovery through water injection is relatively low in ultra-low permeability reservoirs, where the water breaks through early and the water cut rises rapidly. Gas injection can enhance the production, of which the gas-drive efficiency depends on the injection pressure and the gas itself. CO2 is proved to be the best one after comprehensive consideration of the recovery speed, the overall recovery efficiency and the time needed for gas to break through. The pressure of CO2 injection in the field experiments is lower, compared with that of water-drive. The injectivity index of CO2 is 7.2 times as high as that of water, and the oil production of the test well group increases by about 4 t/d.

白云岩储层特征与渗透率评价方法——以伊拉克美索不达米亚盆地古近系为例

伊拉克美索不达米亚盆地古近系白云岩储层储集空间多样,渗透率测井定量评价非常困难。针对这一难题,首先,基于铸体薄片、CT扫描等实验数据,分析白云岩储层的储集空间;其次,结合阵列声波和电成像测井表征微裂缝,划分孔隙型和微裂缝-孔隙型白云岩储层类型;最后,耦合“数据驱动”和“知识驱动”计算白云岩储层的静态渗透率,并分别建立孔隙型和微裂缝-孔隙型白云岩储层动静态渗透率之间的转换关系。结果表明,研究区白云岩储层所发育裂缝的平均宽度为50μm,属于微裂缝级别,微裂缝孔隙度基本小于1.5%;当白云岩储层各向异性小于3.1%时,为孔隙型储层;当白云岩储层各向异性大于或等于3.1%时,为微裂缝-孔隙型储层;从“数据驱动”角度出发,可以将静态渗透率的计算逐步转化为复杂的、高维的、非线性的分类问题,并引入“知识驱动”,弥补“数据驱动”的盲目性和无效性,最终针对研究区白云岩储层所建立决策树分类模型的深度为16层、准确率为84.06%,从而准确计算白云岩储层的静态渗透率,静态渗透率的评价精度提高约70%;孔隙型和微裂缝-孔隙型白云岩储层动静态渗透率转换的相关系数R2分别为0.86和0.90,动静态渗透率之间准确转换关系的建立将为白云岩储层的产能预测奠定重要基础。

致密砂岩油藏体积压裂水平井产能影响因素分析

由于致密油藏储层存在孔隙结构复杂、渗透能力差等特征,开采较为困难。所以开采时需要采取压裂工艺对储层进行改造,形成复杂的裂缝网络,改善流体的渗流能力,以达到提高产能的目的。因此,为了进一步了解裂缝性致密油藏流体的渗流机理,更好的对产能进行评价,利用CMG油藏数值模拟软件,考虑有限导流条件,以双重介质油藏为基础,建立体积压裂水平井的致密油藏渗流模型,通过研究不同裂缝参数,分析各个参数对单井产能的影响。主要研究了微裂缝渗透率、裂缝半长、裂缝导流能力、裂缝间距、窜流系数和裂缝高度等参数对累计产油量和近井地带压力分布特征的影响。结果表明,微裂缝渗透率对累计产油量的贡献率最大,其次是裂缝半长,两者是压裂水平井开采时提高单井产能的重要影响因素;裂缝间距与裂缝导流能力对产能也有较大的影响,但在实际开采时需要合理匹配裂缝条数与水平井长度以及裂缝半长之间的关系,从而达到有效开采目的;窜流系数与裂缝高度对产能的影响有限。

A novel numerical simulation of CO_(2) immiscible flooding coupled with viscosity and starting pressure gradient modeling in ultra-low permeability reservoir

CO_(2) immiscible flooding is an environmentally-friendly and effective method to enhance oil recovery in ultra-low permeability reservoirs.A mathematical model of CO_(2) immiscible flooding was developed,considering the variation in crude oil viscosity and starting pressure gradient in ultra-low permeability reservoirs based on the non-Darcy percolation theory.The mathematical model and numerical simulator were developed in the C++language to simulate the effects of fluid viscosity,starting pressure gradient,and other physical parameters on the distribution of the oil pressure field,oil saturation field,gas saturation field,oil viscosity field,and oil production.The results showed that the formation pressure and pressure propagation velocity in CO_(2) immiscible flooding were lower than the findings without considering the starting pressure gradient.The formation oil content saturation and the crude oil formation viscosity were higher after the consideration of the starting pressure gradient.The viscosity of crude oil considering the initiation pressure gradient during the formation was higher than that without this gradient,but the yield was lower than that condition.Our novel mathematical models helped the characterization of seepage resistance,revealed the influence of fluid property changes on seepage,improved the mathematical model of oil seepage in immiscible flooding processes,and guided the improvement of crude oil recovery in immiscible flooding processes.

砂岩储集层微波加热产生微裂缝的机理及意义

微波加热无需介质传热,具有升温速度快、热惯性小、选择性加热、穿透力强、过程易于控制等优点,已被试验性地应用于石油开采中。但有关微波加热对储集层岩石微观结构影响的研究还很缺乏,限制了该项技术在油气开采领域的广泛应用。通过实验手段研究了微波加热前后砂岩岩样微观结构变化、微裂缝产生机理及特征。结果表明,砂岩在微波加热过程中容易产生微裂缝,且不同岩石的微波加热致裂机理不尽相同,主要包括:矿物失水收缩、颗粒粒间开裂和颗粒内部开裂,低渗透致密砂岩刚性颗粒的粒内开裂作用显著。微波加热产生的微裂缝具非定向特征,即使在应力的作用下有一部分裂缝会发生闭合,但仍有大量微裂缝可以起到增加渗透率的作用。井下微波加热的致裂作用有助于改善近井区域渗流能力,提高低渗透油气藏的开采效率。

邛西构造须二段特低渗透砂岩储层微观裂缝的分布特征

根据微观薄片分析,结合岩心与地表露头资料,对邛西构造须二段特低渗透砂岩储层微观裂缝的类型、特征、期次及其参数分布进行了研究。邛西构造上三叠统须二段储层发育粒内缝、粒缘缝和穿粒缝3种类型的微观裂缝,其成因以构造微裂缝为主,此外还有成岩微裂缝以及与异常高压有关的微裂缝。微观裂缝具有5次充填序列,反映了3次构造破裂事件以及1次成岩破裂事件、1次与异常高压有关的破裂事件。微观裂缝是该区重要的储集空间,对改善特低渗透砂岩储层的储集性能起着重要的作用。

云南恩洪地区煤储层孔裂隙特征及孔渗性分析

研究煤中孔隙和裂隙,对煤层气勘探开发至关重要。云南恩洪地区煤层气资源丰富,具有较好的开发前景。通过多种测试手段对该区煤层气储层的孔隙、裂隙进行了表征,分析了煤储层的孔渗特征,并探讨了煤中显微组分及不同类型的孔隙对储层孔渗性的影响。研究结果表明:恩洪地区煤层厚度大,煤级适中,微小孔发育,吸附能力强,有利于煤层气的吸附;渗流孔隙结构单一,非均质性不高,渗流能力相对较好,显微裂隙以较小微裂隙(D型)为主,定向性和连通性较差,可能造成渗流通道不连续和受阻等问题,导致渗透性变差,对将来煤层气的开发产生不利影响。

鄂尔多斯盆地延长组超低渗透砂岩储层微观孔隙结构特征研究

通过物性分析、扫描电镜、铸体薄片、高压压汞技术对鄂尔多斯盆地延长组沿25、庄40、庄19三个区块超低渗透砂岩储层样品进行分析测试，研究其微观孔隙结构特征。研究表明，超低渗透砂岩储层岩石孔隙结构非均质性强，孔隙喉道类型多样是储层渗透性差的主要原因；孔喉分选系数在2．0-2．5之间、变异系数在0．1-0．2之间物性较好；较大孔喉是决定和改善储层渗透性的重要因素，细小孔道对储层储集能力的贡献较大，储层微裂缝较为发育。储层物性参数的差异、孔喉特征参数的差异等，均归因于微观孔隙结构的差异。