Comparison of a Spectral Bin and Two Multi-Moment Bulk Microphysics Schemes for Supercell Simulation:Investigation into Key Processes Responsible for Hydrometeor Distributions and Precipitation

There are more uncertainties with ice hydrometeor representations and related processes than liquid hydrometeors within microphysics parameterization(MP)schemes because of their complicated geometries and physical properties.Idealized supercell simulations are produced using the WRF model coupled with“full”Hebrew University spectral bin MP(HU-SBM),and NSSL and Thompson bulk MP(BMP)schemes.HU-SBM downdrafts are typically weaker than those of the NSSL and Thompson simulations,accompanied by less rain evaporation.HU-SBM produces more cloud ice(plates),graupel,and hail than the BMPs,yet precipitates less at the surface.The limiting mass bins(and subsequently,particle size)of rimed ice in HU-SBM and slower rimed ice fall speeds lead to smaller melting-level net rimed ice fluxes than those of the BMPs.Aggregation from plates in HU-SBM,together with snow–graupel collisions,leads to a greater snow contribution to rain than those of the BMPs.Replacing HU-SBM’s fall speeds using the formulations of the BMPs after aggregating the discrete bin values to mass mixing ratios and total number concentrations increases net rain and rimed ice fluxes.Still,they are smaller in magnitude than bulk rain,NSSL hail,and Thompson graupel net fluxes near the surface.Conversely,the melting-layer net rimed ice fluxes are reduced when the fall speeds for the NSSL and Thompson simulations are calculated using HU-SBM fall speed formulations after discretizing the bulk particle size distributions(PSDs)into spectral bins.The results highlight precipitation sensitivity to storm dynamics,fall speed,hydrometeor evolution governed by process rates,and MP PSD design.

Parameterization and Explicit Modeling of Cloud Microphysics:Approaches, Challenges, and Future Directions

Cloud microphysical processes occur at the smallest end of scales among cloud-related processes and thus must be parameterized not only in large-scale global circulation models(GCMs)but also in various higher-resolution limited-area models such as cloud-resolving models(CRMs)and large-eddy simulation(LES)models.Instead of giving a comprehensive review of existing microphysical parameterizations that have been developed over the years,this study concentrates purposely on several topics that we believe are understudied but hold great potential for further advancing bulk microphysics parameterizations:multi-moment bulk microphysics parameterizations and the role of the spectral shape of hydrometeor size distributions;discrete vs“continuous”representation of hydrometeor types;turbulence-microphysics interactions including turbulent entrainment-mixing processes and stochastic condensation;theoretical foundations for the mathematical expressions used to describe hydrometeor size distributions and hydrometeor morphology;and approaches for developing bulk microphysics parameterizations.Also presented are the spectral bin scheme and particle-based scheme(especially,super-droplet method)for representing explicit microphysics.Their advantages and disadvantages are elucidated for constructing cloud models with detailed microphysics that are essential to developing processes understanding and bulk microphysics parameterizations.Particle-resolved direct numerical simulation(DNS)models are described as an emerging technique to investigate turbulence-microphysics interactions at the most fundamental level by tracking individual particles and resolving the smallest turbulent eddies in turbulent clouds.Outstanding challenges and future research directions are explored as well.

Near Homogeneous Microphysics of the Record-Breaking 2020 Summer Monsoon Rainfall during the Northward Migration over East China

Knowledge of the raindrop size distribution(DSD)is crucial for disaster prevention and mitigation.The recordbreaking rainfall in the summer of 2020 caused some of the worst flooding ever experienced in China.This study uses 96 Parsivel disdrometers and eight-year Global Precipitation Measurement(GPM)satellite observations to reveal the microphysical aspects of the disastrous rainfall during its northward migration over East China.The results show that the nearly twice as heavy rainfall in Jiangsu Province compared to Fujian Province can be attributed to the earlier-than-average northward jump of the summer monsoon rainband to the Yangtze-Huaihe River valley.The persistent heavy monsoon rainfall showed similar near-maritime DSD characteristics,with a higher concentration of small raindrops than the surrounding climatic regimes.During the northward movement of the rainband,the DSD variables and composite spectra between the pre-summer rainfall in Fujian and mei-yu rainfall in Jiangsu exhibited inherent similarities with slight regional variations.These are associated with similar statistical vertical precipitation structures for both convective and stratiform rain in these regions/periods.The vertical profiles of radar reflectivity and DSD parameters are typical of monsoonal rainfall features,implying the competition between coalescence,breakup,and accretion of vital warm rain processes.This study attributes the anomalously long duration of the mei-yu season for the record-breaking rainfall and reveals inherent homogeneous rainfall microphysics during the northward movement of the summer monsoon rainband.The conclusion is statistically robust and would be helpful for accurate precipitation estimation and model parameterization of summer monsoon rainfall over East China.

A STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF MICROPHYSICAL PROCESSES ON TYPHOON NIDA(2016) USING A NEW DOUBLE-MOMENT MICROPHYSICS SCHEME IN THE WEATHER RESEARCH AND FORECASTING MODEL

The basic structure and cloud features of Typhoon Nida(2016) are simulated using a new microphysics scheme(Liuma) within the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model. Typhoon characteristics simulated with the Liuma microphysics scheme are compared with observations and those simulated with a commonly-used microphysics scheme(WSM6). Results show that using different microphysics schemes does not significantly alter the track of the typhoon but does significantly affect the intensity and the cloud structure of the typhoon. Results also show that the vertical distribution of cloud hydrometeors and the horizontal distribution of peripheral rainband are affected by the microphysics scheme. The mixing ratios of rain water and graupel correlate highly with the vertical velocity component and equivalent potential temperature at the typhoon eye-wall region. According to the simulation with WSM 6 scheme,it is likely that the very low typhoon central pressure results from the positive feedback between hydrometeors and typhoon intensity. As the ice-phase hydrometeors are mostly graupel in the Liuma microphysics scheme, further improvement in this aspect is required.

A Two-Moment Bulk Microphysics Coupled with a Mesoscale Model WRF: Model Description and First Results

The Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences （CAMS） two-moment bulk microphysics scheme was adopted in this study to investigate the representation of cloud and precipitation processes under different environmental conditions.The scheme predicts the mixing ratio of water vapor as well as the mixing ratios and number concentrations of cloud droplets,rain,ice,snow,and graupel.A new parameterization approach to simulate heterogeneous droplet activation was developed in this scheme.Furthermore,the improved CAMS scheme was coupled with the Weather Research and Forecasting model （WRF v3.1）,which made it possible to simulate the microphysics of clouds and precipitation as well as the cloud-aerosol interactions in selected atmospheric condition.The rain event occurring on 27-28 December 2008 in eastern China was simulated using the CAMS scheme and three sophisticated microphysics schemes in the WRF model.Results showed that the simulated 36-h accumulated precipitations were generally agreed with observation data,and the CAMS scheme performed well in the southern area of the nested domain.The radar reflectivity,the averaged precipitation intensity,and the hydrometeor mixing ratios simulated by the CAMS scheme were generally consistent with those from other microphysics schemes.The hydrometeor number concentrations simulated by the CAMS scheme were also close to the experiential values in stratus clouds.The model results suggest that the CAMS scheme performs reasonably well in describing the microphysics of clouds and precipitation in the mesoscale WRF model.

The Role of Initial Cloud Condensation Nuclei Concentration in Hail Using the WRF NSSL 2-moment Microphysics Scheme

The effects of the initial cloud condensation nuclei （CCN） concentrations （100-3000 mg-1） on hail properties were investigated in an idealized non-severe hail storm experiment using the Weather Research and Forecasting （WRF） model, with the National Severe Storms Laboratory 2-moment microphysics scheme. The initial CCN concentration （CCNC） had obvious non-monotonic effects on the mixing ratio, number concentrations, and radius of hail, both in clouds and at the surface, with a CCNC threshold between 300 and 500 mg-1. An increasing CCNC is conducive （suppressive） to the amount of surface hail precipitation below （above） the CCNC threshold. The non-monotonic effects were due to both the thermodynamics and microphysics. Below the CCNC threshold, the mixing ratios with the increasing CCNC, resulting in more latent heat released of cloud droplets and ice crystals increased dramatically from condensation and frozen between 4 and 8 km and intensified updraft volume. The extent of the riming process, which is the primary process for hail production, increased dramatically. Above the CCNC threshold, the mixing ratio of cloud droplets and ice crystals increased continuously, but the maximum updraft volume was weakened because of reduced frozen latent heating at low level. The smaller ice crystals reduced the formation of hail and smaller clouds, with decreased rain water reducing riming efficiency so that graupel and hail also decreased with increasing CCNC, which is unfavorable for hail growth.

Sensitivity of the Simulation of Tropical Cyclone Size to Microphysics Schemes

The sensitivity of the simulation of tropical cyclone （TC） size to microphysics schemes is studied using the Advanced Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting Model （WRF）. Six TCs during the 2013 western North Pacific typhoon season and three mainstream microphysics schemes-Ferrier （FER）, WRF Single-Moment 5-class （WSM5） and WRF Single-Moment 6-class （WSM6）-are investigated. The results consistently show that the simulated TC track is not sensitive to the choice of microphysics scheme in the early simulation, especially in the open ocean. However, the sensitivity is much greater for TC intensity and inner-core size. The TC intensity and size simulated using the WSM5 and WSM6 schemes are respectively higher and larger than those using the FER scheme in general, which likely results from more diabatic heating being generated outside the eyewall in rainbands. More diabatic heating in rainbands gives higher inflow in the lower troposphere and higher outflow in the upper troposphere, with higher upward motion outside the eyewall. The lower-tropospheric inflow would transport absolute angular momentum inward to spin up tangential wind predominantly near the eyewall, leading to the increment in TC intensity and size （the inner-core size, especially）. In addition, the inclusion of graupel microphysics processes （as in WSM6） may not have a significant impact on the simulation of TC track, intensity and size.

Numerical Simulation of Macro-and Micro-structures of Intense Convective Clouds with a Spectral Bin Microphysics Model

By use of a three-dimensional compressible non-hydrostatic convective cloud model with detailed microphysics featuring spectral bins of cloud condensation nuclei （CCN）, liquid droplets, ice crystals, snow and graupel particles, the spatial and temporal distributions of hydrometeors in a supercell observed by the （Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation Study） STEPS triple-radar network are simulated and analyzed. The bin model is also employed to study the effect of CCN concentration on the evolution characteristics of the supercell. It is found that the CCN concentration not only affects the concentration and spectral distribution of water droplets, but also influences the characteristics of ice crystals and graupel particles. With a larger number of CCN, more water droplets and ice crystals are produced and the growth of graupel is restrained. With a small quantity of CCN the production of large size water droplets are promoted by initially small concentrations of water droplets and ice crystals, leading to earlier formation of small size graupel and restraining the recycling growth of graupel, and thus inhibiting the formation of large size graupel （or small size hail）. It can be concluded that both the macroscopic airflow and microphysical processes influence the formation and growth of large size graupel （or small size hail）. In regions with heavy pollution, a high concentration of CCN may restrain the formation of graupel and hail, and in extremely clean regions, excessively low concentrations of CCN may also limit the formation of large size graupel （hail）.

Variational Assimilation of Satellite Cloud Water/Ice Path and Microphysics Scheme Sensitivity to the Assimilation of a Rainfall Case

Hydrometeor variables （cloud water and cloud ice mixing ratios） are added into the WRF three-dimensional variational assimilation system as additional control variables to directly analyze hydrometeors by assimilating cloud observations. In addition, the background error covariance matrix of hydrometeors is modeled through a control variable transform, and its characteristics discussed in detail. A suite of experiments using four microphysics schemes （LIN, SBU-YLIN, WDM6 and WSM6） are performed with and without assimilating satellite cloud liquid/ice water path. We find analysis of hydrometeors with cloud assimilation to be significantly improved, and the increment and distribution of hydrometeors are consistent with the characteristics of background error covariance. Diagnostic results suggest that the forecast with cloud assimilation represents a significant improvement, especially the ability to forecast precipitation in the first seven hours. It is also found that the largest improvement occurs in the experiment using the WDM6 scheme, since the assimilated cloud information can sustain for longer in this scheme. The least improvement, meanwhile, appears in the experiment using the SBU-YLIN scheme.

Numerical Simulation of Microphysics in Meso-β-Scale Convective Cloud System Associated with a Mesoscale Convective Complex

Numerical simulation of meso-β-scale convective cloud systems associated with a PRE-STORM MCC case has been carried out using a 2-D version of the CSU Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (RAMS) nonhydrostatic model with parameterized microphysics. It is found that the predicted meso-r-scale convective phenomena arc basically unsteady under the situation of strong shear at low-levels, while the meso-β-scale convective system is maintained up to 3 hours or more. The meso -β- scale cloud system exhibits characteristics of a multi-celled convective storm in which the meso-r-scale convective cells have lifetime of about 30 min. Pressure perturbation depicts a meso-low after a half hour in the low levels. As the cloud system evolves, the meso-low intensifies and extends to the upshear side and covers the entire domain in the mid-lower levels with the peak values of 5-8 hPa. Temperature perturbation depicts a warm region in the middle levels through the entire simulation period. The meso-r-scale warm cores with peak values of 4-8 ℃ are associated with strong convective cells. The cloud top evaporation causes a stronger cold layer around the cloud top levels.Simulation of microphysics exhibits that graupel is primarily concentrated in the strong convective cells forming the main source of convective rainfall after one hour of simulation time. Aggregates are mainly located in the stratiform region and decaying convective cells which produce the stratiform rainfall. Riming of the ice crystals is the predominant precipitation formation mechanism in the convection region, whereas aggregation of ice crystals is the predominant one in the stratiform region, which is consistent with observations. Sensitivity experiments of ice-phase mierophysical processes show that the microphysical structures of the convective cloud system can be simulated better with the diagnosed aggregation collection efficiencies.

Two-moment Bulk Stratiform Cloud Microphysics in the Grid-point Atmospheric Model of IAP LASG (GAMIL)

A two-moment bulk stratiform microphysics scheme, including recently developed physically-based droplet activation/ice nucleation parameterizations has been implemented into the Grid-point Atmospheric Model of IAP LASG （GAMIL） as an effort to enhance the model＇s capability to simulate aerosol indirect effects. Unlike the previous one-moment cloud microphysics scheme, the new scheme produces a reasonable rep- resentation of cloud particle size and number concentration. This scheme captures the observed spatial variations in cloud droplet number concentrations. Simulated ice crystal number concentrations in cirrus clouds qualitatively agree with in situ observations. The longwave and shortwave cloud forcings are in better agreement with observations. Sensitivity tests show that the column cloud droplet number concentrations calculated from two different droplet activation parameterizations are similar. However, ice crystal number concentration in mixed-phased clouds is sensitive to different heterogeneous ice nucleation formulations. The simulation with high ice crystal number concentration in mixed-phase clouds has less liquid water path and weaker cloud forcing. ~rthermore, ice crystal number concentration in cirrus clouds is sensitive to different ice nucleation parameterizations. Sensitivity tests also suggest that the impact of pre-existing ice crystals on homogeneous freezing in old clouds should be taken into account.

Evaluation of Unified Model Microphysics in High-resolution NWP Simulations Using Polarimetric Radar Observations

The UK Met Office Unified Model（UM） is employed by many weather forecasting agencies around the globe. This model is designed to run across spatial and time scales and known to produce skillful predictions for large-scale weather systems. However, the model has only recently begun running operationally at horizontal grid spacings of ～1.5 km [e.g.,at the UK Met Office and the Korea Meteorological Administration（KMA）]. As its microphysics scheme was originally designed and tuned for large-scale precipitation systems, we investigate the performance of UM microphysics to determine potential inherent biases or weaknesses. Two rainfall cases from the KMA forecasting system are considered in this study： a Changma（quasi-stationary） front, and Typhoon Sanba（2012）. The UM output is compared to polarimetric radar observations in terms of simulated polarimetric radar variables. Results show that the UM generally underpredicts median reflectivity in stratiform rain, producing high reflectivity cores and precipitation gaps between them. This is partially due to the diagnostic rain intercept parameter formulation used in the one-moment microphysics scheme. Model drop size is generally both underand overpredicted compared to observations. UM frozen hydrometeors favor generic ice（crystals and snow） rather than graupel, which is reasonable for Changma and typhoon cases. The model performed best with the typhoon case in terms of simulated precipitation coverage.

Impact of Different Cloud Microphysics Parameterization Schemes on Typhoon Intensity and Structure

The impact of different cloud microphysics parameterization schemes on the intensity and structure of the Super-strong Typhoon Rammasun(1409)in 2014 is investigated using the Weather Research and Forecasting model version 3.4 with eight cloud microphysics parameterization schemes.Results indicate that the uncertainty of cloud microphysics schemes results in typhoon forecast uncertainties,which increase with forecast time.Typhoon forecast uncertainty primarily affects intensity predictions,with significant differences in predicted typhoon intensity using various cloud microphysics schemes.Typhoon forecast uncertainty also affects the predicted typhoon structure.Greater typhoon intensity is accompanied by smaller vortex width,tighter vortex structure,stronger wind in the middle and lower troposphere,greater height of the strong wind region,smaller thickness of the eyewall and the outward extension of the eyewall,and a warmer warm core at upper levels of the eye.The differences among the various cloud microphysics schemes lead to different amounts and distributions of water vapor and hydrometeors in clouds.Different hydrometeors have different vertical distributions.In the radial direction,the maxima for the various hydrometeors forecast by a single cloud microphysics scheme are collocated with each other and with the center of maximum precipitation.When the hydrometeor concentration is high and hydrometeors exist at lower altitudes,more precipitation often occurs.Both the vertical and horizontal winds are the strongest at the location of maximum precipitation.Results also indicate that typhoon intensities forecast by cloud microphysics schemes containing graupel processes are noticeably greater than those forecast by schemes without graupel processes.Among the eight cloud microphysics schemes investigated,typhoon intensity forecasts using the WRF Single-Moment 6-class and Thompson schemes are the most accurate.

LASG Global AGCM with a Two-moment Cloud Microphysics Scheme:Energy Balance and Cloud Radiative Forcing Characteristics

Cloud dominates influence factors of atmospheric radiation, while aerosol–cloud interactions are of vital importance in its spatiotemporal distribution. In this study, a two-moment(mass and number) cloud microphysics scheme, which significantly improved the treatment of the coupled processes of aerosols and clouds, was incorporated into version 1.1 of the IAP/LASG global Finite-volume Atmospheric Model(FAMIL1.1). For illustrative purposes, the characteristics of the energy balance and cloud radiative forcing(CRF) in an AMIP-type simulation with prescribed aerosols were compared with those in observational/reanalysis data. Even within the constraints of the prescribed aerosol mass, the model simulated global mean energy balance at the top of the atmosphere(TOA) and at the Earth’s surface, as well as their seasonal variation, are in good agreement with the observational data. The maximum deviation terms lie in the surface downwelling longwave radiation and surface latent heat flux, which are 3.5 W m-2(1%) and 3 W m-2(3.5%), individually. The spatial correlations of the annual TOA net radiation flux and the net CRF between simulation and observation were around 0.97 and 0.90, respectively. A major weakness is that FAMIL1.1 predicts more liquid water content and less ice water content over most oceans. Detailed comparisons are presented for a number of regions, with a focus on the Asian monsoon region(AMR). The results indicate that FAMIL1.1 well reproduces the summer–winter contrast for both the geographical distribution of the longwave CRF and shortwave CRF over the AMR. Finally, the model bias and possible solutions, as well as further works to develop FAMIL1.1 are discussed.

A Comparison of Two Bulk Microphysics Parameterizations for the Study of Aerosol Impacts on an Idealized Supercell

Idealized supercell storms are simulated with two aerosol-aware bulk microphysics schemes(BMSs),the Thompson and the Chen-Liu-Reisner(CLR),using the Weather Research and Forecast(WRF)model.The objective of this study is to investigate the parameterizations of aerosol effects on cloud and precipitation characteristics and assess the necessity of introducing aerosols into a weather prediction model at fine grid resolution.The results show that aerosols play a decisive role in the composition of clouds in terms of the mixing ratios and number concentrations of liquid and ice hydrometeors in an intense supercell storm.The storm consists of a large amount of cloud water and snow in the polluted environment,but a large amount of rainwater and graupel instead in the clean environment.The total precipitation and rain intensity are suppressed in the CLR scheme more than in the Thompson scheme in the first three hours of storm simulations.The critical processes explaining the differences are the auto-conversion rate in the warm-rain process at the beginning of storm intensification and the low-level cooling induced by large ice hydrometeors.The cloud condensation nuclei(CCN)activation and auto-conversion processes of the two schemes exhibit considerable differences,indicating the inherent uncertainty of the parameterized aerosol effects among different BMSs.Beyond the aerosol effects,the fall speed characteristics of graupel in the two schemes play an important role in the storm dynamics and precipitation via low-level cooling.The rapid intensification of storms simulated with the Thompson scheme is attributed to the production of hail-like graupel.

Efects of Vertical Wind Shear, Radiation and Ice Microphysics on Precipitation Efciency during a Torrential Rainfall Event in China

The effects of vertical wind shear, radiation and ice microphysics on precipitation efficiency （PE） were investigated through analysis of modeling data of a torrential rainfall event over Jinan, China during July 2007. Vertical wind shear affected PE by changing the kinetic energy conversion between the mean and perturbation circulations. Clou^radiation interaction impacted upon PE, but the relationship related to cloud radiative effects on PE was not statistically significant. The reduction in deposition processes as- sociated with the removal of ice microphysics suppressed efficiency. The relationships related to effects of vertical wind shear, radiation and ice clouds on PEs defined in cloud and surface rainfall budgets were more statistically significant than that defined in the rain microphysical budget.

A Modified Double-Moment Bulk Microphysics Scheme Geared toward the East Asian Monsoon Region

Representation of cloud microphysical processes is one of the key aspects of numerical models.An improved double-moment bulk cloud microphysics scheme(named IMY)was created based on the standard Milbrandt-Yau(MY)scheme in the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)model for the East Asian monsoon region(EAMR).In the IMY scheme,the shape parameters of raindrops,snow particles,and cloud droplet size distributions are variables instead of fixed constants.Specifically,the shape parameters of raindrop and snow size distributions are diagnosed from their respective shape-slope relationships.The shape parameter for the cloud droplet size distribution depends on the total cloud droplet number concentration.In addition,a series of minor improvements involving detailed cloud processes have also been incorporated.The improved scheme was coupled into the WRF model and tested on two heavy rainfall cases over the EAMR.The IMY scheme is shown to reproduce the overall spatial distribution of rainfall and its temporal evolution,evidenced by comparing the modeled results with surface gauge observations.The simulations also successfully capture the cloud features by using satellite and ground-based radar observations as a reference.The IMY has yielded simulation results on the case studies that were comparable,and in ways superior to MY,indicating that the improved scheme shows promise.Although the simulations demonstrated a positive performance evaluation for the IMY scheme,continued experiments are required to further validate the scheme with different weather events.

The Effect of the Atmospheric and Cloud Properties on the Retrieval of Fog Microphysics at Night for MSG/SEVIRI: A Sensitivity Test Using LibRadtran

The simplest way of building a look-up table (LUT) for the retrieval of cloud microphysical properties is to use a standard atmospheric profile and vertically uniform cloud microphysics. Such an assumption has been demonstrated to be incoherent with in-cloud observations. This paper aims to show the effect of some atmospheric conditions associated with fog as well as its macro-and microstructure on brightness temperature (BT) for the MSG/ SEVIRI satellite using libRadtran. The sensitivity tests were performed by gradually changing some features from the initial data, such as cloud cover, total water vapor column, thermal inversion intensity, fog depth, fog microstructure, and others. The results revealed that some variables can cause significant variations on BT and, consequently, discrepancies in the retrieval of fog microphysical properties. Also, a variation as high as 0.5°C was found on BT just by switching uniform to the non-uniform profile of fog microphysics depending on the channel, the droplet size, and optical thickness.

Scaling the Microphysics Equations and Analyzing the Variability of Hydrometeor Production Rates in a Controlled Parameter Space

A set of microphysics equations is scaled based on the convective length and velocity scales. Comparisons are made among the dynamical transport and various microphysical processes. From the scaling analysis, it becomes apparent which parameterized microphysical processes present off-scaled influences in the integration of the set of microphysics equations. The variabilities of the parameterized microphysical processes are also studied using the approach of a controlled parameter space. Given macroscopic dynamic and thermodynamic conditions in different regions of convective storms, it is possible to analyze and compare vertical profiles of these processes. Bulk diabatic heating profiles for a cumulus convective updraft and downdraft are also derived from this analysis. From the two different angles, the scale analysis and the controlled-parameter space approach can both provide an insight into and an understanding of microphysics parameterizations.

Review and Microphysics of the Maximum Electricity Atmospheric Activity in the World: the Catatumbo Lightning (Venezuela)

A review of the state of knowledge and phenomenology on the site of the greatest atmospheric electrical activity in the world,known as the Catatumbo Lightning,located southeast of Lake Maracaibo(Venezuela),is presented.A microphysical model is presented to explain the charging process through electrical displacement within the cells of the cloud,incorporating the role of the self-polarization of ice and methane molecules as pyroelectric aerosol,which accounts for the phenomenology and is consistent with electrification in thunderstorm.It is concluded that the pyroelectric model allows to explain the phenomenology of the rapid discharges of the flashes in the Catatumbo lightning and could be applied in outer planetary lightning.