An agent-based model of agricultural land expansion in the mountain forest of Timor Island,Indonesia

The Mutis-Timau Forest Complex,located on Timor Island,Indonesia,is a mountainous tropical forest area that gradually decreases due to deforestation and forest degradation.Previous modelling studies based on patterns indicate that deforestation primarily occurs at lower elevations and near the boundaries of forests and settlements,often associated with shifting cultivation by local farmers.This study adopts a process-based modelling approach,specifically the agent-based model,to simulate land changes,particularly farmers'expansion of agricultural land around the Mutis mountain forest.The underlying concept of this agent-based approach is the interaction between the human and environmental systems.Farmers,representing the human system,interact with the land,which represents the environmental system,through land use decision-making mechanisms.The research was conducted in the Community Forest of the Timor Tengah Utara District,one of the sites within the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex with the highest deforestation rate.Land use change simulations were performed using agent-based modelling from 1999 to 2030,considering the socio-economic conditions of farmers,spatial preferences,land use decisions,and natural transitions.The results revealed that the agricultural area increased by 14%under the Business as Usual scenario and 5%under the Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation scenario,compared to the initial agricultural area of 245 hectares.The probability of farmers deciding to extend agricultural activities was positively associated with the number of livestock maintained by farmers and the size of the village area.Conversely,the likelihood of farmers opting for agricultural extensification decreased with an increase in the area of private land and the farmer's age.These findings are crucial for the managers of the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex and other relevant stakeholders,as they aid in arranging actions to combat deforestation,designing proper forest-related policies,and providing support for initiatives such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation programs or further incentive schemes.

Relationships between native tree species and soil properties in the indigenous forest fragments of the Eastern Arc Mountains of the Taita Hills, Kenya

The relationship between soil properties and spatial distribution of native woody species was studied in three Taita Hills forest fragments which, although degraded, are ranked among 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world due to their high biodiversity of both plant and animal species. This relationship was assessed by using Spearman correlation and principal component analyses （PCA）. The results of these analyses should be useful in instituting forest restoration programs that are crucial for the forests. Both the soil and vegetation studied were sampled from 17 subplots in the natural forest fragments of Ngangao （120 ha）, Chawia （86 ha） and Mbololo （185 ha）. The soil variables measured were： pH, texture, soil nutrients of C, N, Ca, P, K, Mg and Na. In total 36 native tree species from 13 families were identified from the three forest fragments. Ordination results show that axis 1 accounted for 35% and axis 2 for 25% of the total variation in species composition, indicating that the structure of vegetation is related to two major environmental gradients. The correlation analyses of species and soil properties showed that Na and clay particles were the most important determinants of species distribution; pH and soil variables such as C, N, Ca and P also played minor roles. Unexpectedly, some species （e.g. Psychotria petitii） showed positive relationships with Na attributed to possible substitution for K. Relationships with P were both positive （e.g. Craibia zimmermannii） and negative （e.g. Albizia gummifera） with some species, attributable to pH levels. An ANOVA for soil variables showed that there were differences in the Ca content in Mbololo （due to the parent material） and P in Ngangao where a special relationship was observed between some of the species. The presence of gaps accounted for the distribution of seedlings but not for the saplings, whose distribution responded more to factors similar to those to which mature trees respond. Soil-species relationships that were established may be utilized along with soil analyses when choosing native species for restoration.

Assessing the invasion risk of botanical garden's exotic threatened collections to adjacent mountain forests: A case study of Cibodas Botanical Garden

A primary objective of botanical gardens is to conserve threatened plant species from different regions and countries.However,such ex-situ conservation practices for exotic plant species may pose a significant plant invasion risks.In this study,we predict the naturalization probability of exotic threatened plant species of Cibodas Botanical Garden(CBG) collections based on leaf trait(specific leaf area,SLA) or as a function of invasion risk assessment scoring system(Tropical Weed Risk Assessment Protocol,TWRAP).We found that SLA and TWRAP were positively correlated with naturalization probability.The TWRAP model produced higher predictive probabilities with larger uncertainty compared to SLA model.Parmentiera cereifera and Burretiodendron hsienmu are two species that have highest naturalization probability based on SLA model.Chamaedorea oblongata has the highest naturalization probability based on TWRAP model.From practical and management point of view,we recommend the simultaneous use of SLA-based and TWRAP-based invasive species risk assessment to estimate the naturalization risk of exotic threatened collections of botanical gardens to adjacent mountain forests.Finally,given the important conservation value of threatened exotic collection of botanical garden,we need to be aware with the invasion risks of these species.The threatened condition of a plant species is not only caused by its natural characteristics but also may be caused(in fact mostly confounding with) by external disturbance either natural catastrophic or human related activities.Thus,a threatened species may not necessarily a noninvasive species outside their natural distribution ranges.

Ecotourism Development in the Context of Cultural and Tourism Integration:A Case Study of Wanli Mopan Mountain Forest Park

The integration of culture and tourism is a new form of tourism and a trend of tourism industry development.Mopan Mountain Forest Park in Wanli District of Nanchang City is taken as research object,and the excavation of its cultural elements is analyzed.It is thought that cultural elements can revitalize the culture and tourism industry,promote the integration of culture and tourism,encourage the mutual penetration of cultural innovation,design services and tourism products,improve the development and service level of cultural tourism products,and accelerate the development of characteristic cultural tourism.

Larch growth across thermal and moisture gradients in the Siberian Mountains

Climate-driven changes in the thermal and moisture regimes may variously influence different tree species growth and ranges.We hypothesize that drought resistant Siberian larch(Larix sibirica Ledeb.)and precipitation-sensitive Siberian pine(Pinus sibirica Du Tour)responded differently to climate change along the elevational thermal and precipitation gradients.We studied the influence of air temperature,precipitation,soil moisture,and atmospheric drought(indicated by the drought index SPEI)on larch and pine growth along the southward megaslope of the West Sayan Ridge.We found that since 2000 climate change resulted in increasing larch and pine radial growth index(GI)(c.1.5–3times)within treeline(2000–2300 m)and timberline(1900–2000 m)ecotones,i.e.within high precipitation zones.Within the forest-steppe ecotone(1100–1200 m)in which L.sibirica is the only species,larch GI stagnated or even decreased.The total forested area increased since 2000 up to+50%in the high elevations,whereas in the low elevations(<1400 m)area changes were negligible.Within treeline and timberline,trees’GI was stimulated by summer temperature.Meanwhile,temperature increase in early spring reduces GI due to living tissue activation followed by tissue damage by desiccation.Within forest-steppe,larch radial growth was mostly dependent on soil moisture.Warming shifted dependence on moisture to the early dates of the growing period.Acute droughts decreased GI within forest-steppe as well as within treeline,whereas the drought influence on both species within highlands was insignificant.Within forest-steppe seedlings establishment was poor,whereas it was successful within treeline and timberline.Current climate change leads to stagnation or even decrease in Larix sibirica growth in the southern lowland habitat.In combination with poor seedlings establishment,reduced growth threatens the transformation of open lowland forests into forest-steppe and steppe communities.Meanwhile,in the highlands warming facilitated the growth of Siberian larch and pine and the increase of forested area.

Estimation of Relative Ecological Value of Returning Farmland to Forest & Mountain Enclosure for Grazing Prohibition——A case study in Yongxing Township of Jingyuan County,Gansu Province

[Objective]Returning farmland to forest and mountain enclosure for grazing prohibition ecological effect and economy rationality were explored.[Methods]A case study of returning farmland to forest and barren hills grazing prohibition in Yongxing Township of Jingyuan County was used to discuss and estimate the relative ecological function and relative ecological value.[Results]1）The ecological value of the forest of returning farmland was far more than the sum of the ecological value of farm crops and the agricultural output,and also more than the national subsidy standard.So the state policy of returning farmland to forests is not only favorable to local eco-environment restoration,but also reasonable in economic development.2）The ecological value of mountain enclosure for grazing prohibition was less than the opportunity cost of prohibiting grazing,also less than the national subsidy standard.The sum of the relative ecological value of prohibiting grazing and the state subsidies was more than the opportunity cost of prohibiting grazing.However,the ecological value of new vegetation through returning farmland to forest project was greater than the China＇s average ecological value of grassland.[Conclusion]The relative ecological value can be used to solve the problems in the equivalent conversion among various ecological indexes and between ecological indexes and economic indexes.

Assessment of causes and future deforestation in the mountainous tropical forest of Timor Island, Indonesia

The Mutis-Timau Forest Complex,one of the remaining mountainous tropical forest areas in Timor Island,eastern Indonesia that covers an area of 31,984 ha,tends to decrease gradually.Efforts to secure mountain forest functions and counteract the negative impact of declining forest areas are often constrained by data uncertainty on factors contributing to deforestation.For this reason,this study attempts to develop models of deforestation and predict future deforestation in the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex.We constructed models of deforestation that describe the relationship between deforestation and factors contributing to deforestation using spatial statistical models.In this model,we used the deforestation data for the 1987-2017 period obtained from a previous study as dependent variables and the potential causes of deforestation generated from Geographic Information System spatial analysis as independent variables.Using the probability of deforestation derived from the model,we predicted future deforestation under two different scenarios,namely,business-as-usual(as the reference scenario)and reducing emission fromdeforestation and forest degradation.Our findings showed that a positive relationship exists between probability of deforestation,distance to the settlement,and population density variables,whereas a negative relationship exists between likelihood of deforestation,elevation,slope,distance to the road,distance to the savanna,and forest management unit variables.During the 2017-2030 period,under the business-as-usual scenario,the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex will lose 1327.65 ha in forest area with an annual deforestation rate of 0.54%.Meanwhile,under the reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation scenario,the overall forest loss was estimated to be 1237.11 ha with an annual deforestation rate of 0.50%.The predicted area of avoided deforestation in 2017-2030 under the reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation scenario was 90.54 ha.Such data and information are important for the Mutis-Timau Forest Complex authority in prioritizing actions for combating deforestation and designing appropriate forest-related policies and supporting data for reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation programme or other incentive schemes in reducing deforestation.

“两山”理念与集体林权制度改革新格局构建

在阐述“两山”理念的本质与重要体现的基础上,理解其推动指导集体林权制度改革的现实意义,分析了集体林权制度改革的成效和问题,以及集体林权制度改革新格局构建的系统思维,“创新引领、科学先行”和“尊重农民意愿、保护农民权益”的原则,从为推进乡村振兴赋能助力、为推进共同富裕筑好平台以及为推进生态文明建设再立新功3个维度探讨了集体林权制度改革新格局构建的路径。

对滇池流域山水林田湖草一体化保护和系统治理的思考

滇池是“九五”时期以来我国重点治理的“三河三湖”之一,经过30年治理,水质明显改善,水生态系统演变趋势向好。然而目前,滇池流域“山水林田湖草”系统治理格局还未完全形成,流域生态系统韧性不足,水环境质量正处于进一步改善的瓶颈期。为探索滇池治理的未来发展路径,本文系统总结了前期滇池治理历程与成效,诊断了存在的主要问题,分析了滇池流域自然—社会复合生态系统特征,提出了滇池流域山水林田湖草一体化保护和系统治理的思路、目标、空间布局和重点任务,以期为新时期滇池流域水生态环境保护提供指导,也为其他城市型重污染湖泊流域从水污染防治向水生态保护的转变提供借鉴。

Chan Buddhism in Wilderness and the Buddhist Tourism

The culture of landscape constitutes one of the vital characteristics of Chinese culture,in which,Chan Buddhism is a typical kind of Buddhist culture expressed by the natural objects.Chinese Buddhism,represented by Chan School,is interpreted by the beautiful natural scenery,therefore it is closely related to the tourism from the ancient time.However,this link is to defend Buddhist tourism,which is inevitably criticized,since the secularization of sacred Buddhism,though Buddhist tourism is beneficial for life,society,economy,and Buddhism itself.But this sort of criticism is a misunderstanding of Chinese Buddhism since that Chinese Buddhism absorbs Zhuang Zi’s thought that“the ultimate truth(道)is in shit(屎尿)”1,so that it purports to the sacred dimension which is overlapped by the secular aspect.For example,the short poems composed by masters in Chan School“The Buddhist dharma is in this world,so that the enlightenment could not be realized outside of the human world”,“where there is bamboo and flower,there is dharma and prajna”,are the best way to express this kind of divine concept,moreover,Buddhist tourism is an effective practice to allocate this divine connotation.

青海祁连山区山水林田湖草生态保护修复工程生态成效评估

生态成效作为判定山水林田湖草生态保护修复工程有效性的重要途径,对加强工程总体布局和顶层设计、确保工程取得显著成效具有非常重要的意义。青海省祁连山区具有极其典型的“山水林田湖草”生命共同体特征,是中国第一批山水林田湖草生态保护修复工程试点之一。通过构建“生态干扰变化-生态系统格局变化-生态系统质量变化-生态系统功能变化-生态成效变化”逻辑框架,运用时空对比分析方法,对青海祁连山区山水林田湖草生态保护修复工程的生态成效进行了评估。结果表明:工程实施后,重要生态用地面积增长了0.1%、生态连通度降低了0.5%、植被覆盖度指数提升了10.1%、单位面积水源涵养量提高了31.5%,土壤保持量增加了3.1%,固碳量增加了2.8%,表明工程实施以来,生态干扰增加,部分类型生态系统破碎化有所加剧,但总体生态系统格局相对稳定,生态系统质量和各生态功能均有提升,修复成效显现。研究结果对青海祁连山区山水林田湖草生态保护修复工程的实施有一定的指导性作用,能为未来山水林田湖草生态保护修复工作提供先进经验,对科学指导中国更好地开展生态修复工作具有重要意义。

生态产品价值转化能力评价——以山水林田湖草一体化保护和修复工程为例

创建一个科学且有效的生态产品价值转化能力评价体系对于全面评估生态修复工程的效果,推动生态价值的转化,以及提升生态修复工程的社会经济效益具有重要意义。本文以钱塘江源头区域的山水林田湖草生态修复工程项目(以下简称“山水工程”)为例,通过分析生态产品保护成效、生态价值转化成效和生态价值转化保障机制三个关键方面,构建一套生态产品价值转化能力的评价体系。研究结果表明,研究区域及其四个县(市)的生态产品价值转化能力获得显著的提升,但在空间分布上存在一定的差异。此外,研究还发现山水工程在生态治理力度上存在不均衡,生态产品价值转化能力仍有提升空间。因此,建议同步推进生态产品的保护和价值转化机制的建设,并进一步完善生态产品价值核算的方法和相关策略,以提升生态修复工程的效果和实现其更大的价值。

山水林田湖草系统治理理论与方法综述

针对不同区域山水林田湖草存在问题,寻求适宜的系统治理方法至关重要。国内外运用最为广泛的山水林田湖草系统治理的理论与方法主要有基于自然的解决方法(NbS)、再野化、景感生态学、生态安全格局和生态系统服务5种,但目前对这些理论与方法的相互联系和区别尚不清晰。从定义及发展、准则、实施方法和典型案例等方面系统梳理了山水林田湖草系统治理的5种理论与方法并进行比较,结果可知,5种理论与方法运用生态系统的恢复力和适应性,通过自然恢复和人为干预等手段,使退化或者破坏的生态系统回归到一种稳定、健康、可持续的发展状态,但它们在人为干预程度、适用范围、与人类关系的密切程度及农业应用等方面有差异。认识到山水林田湖草系统治理不同理论与方法的特点、适用性和局限性,结合治理区域的特点和问题,针对性地选择治理方法,为山水林田湖草系统治理理论和实践提供参考。

Leaf macro-and micro-morphological altitudinal variability of Carpinus betulus in the Hyrcanian forest (Iran)

We investigated the altitudinal variation of Carpinus betulus L. in the Hyrcanian forest using leaf macro-morphological and micro-morphological traits. We collected a total of 1600 leaves from two locations. In each location, we sampled six populations along an altitudinal gradient ranging from 100 m to 1,150 m. We found that trees in the higher elevations have smaller leaf lamina than those in the lower elevations. In contrast, leaf mass per area was high at low altitudes and increased newly at the higher ones. Stomatal dimension was negatively correlated with elevation, while stomatal density was positively correlated with elevation. We also found that two transects showed the same plasticity trend. Leaf area showed the highest plasticity, while the number of veins showed the lowest plasticity. This study shows that altitude, and related temperature and rainfall, represents an important driving force in Carpinus betulus leaf morphological variation. Moreover, our results suggest that leaf area, leaf mass per area and stomatal density could influence the species responses to different ecological conditions.

Effect of human disturbance on the structure and regeneration of forests in the Nevado de Toluca National Park, Mexico

Sample plots were established in the principal forest types in the the Nevado de Toluca National Park, Mexico including those domi- nated by Pinus hartwegii, Abies religiosa, Quercus laurina and Alnus jorullensis. The vertical structure was defined by three strata in the coniferous forests and two strata in the broadleaved forests. Timber harvesting in Abies religiosa and Quercus laurina forests and fires generated by humans in Pinus hartwegii forests impeded the recruitment of saplings. Mature trees were also heavily impacted by logging in Pinus hartwegii forests. On the contrary, Alnusjorullensis forests were increas- ing due to the disturbance of Pinus and Quercus forests, as well aban- doned crop lands within the park. A combination of logging, uncon- trolled fire, and grazing appears to be compromising the recruitment of important tree species in this national park. These factors, together with human settlements, have also increased the proportion of early succes- sional species. Changes in forest structure from human disturbance indicate a need to control these activities if conservation goals are not to be compromised.

Alpine ecotone in the Siberian Mountains:vegetation response to warming

Birch(Betula tortuosa)is one of the treeline forming species within the Siberian Mountains.We analysed the area dynamics of birch stands and the upslope climb of birch treeline based on the Landsat time series scenes and on-ground data.We found that since the warming onset(1970th)birch area increased by 10%,birch stands and treeline boundary were moving upslope with a rate of 1.4 m/yr and 4.0 m/yr.Birch upslope shift correlated with air temperatures at the beginning(May-June)and the end(August-October)of the growth period.Meanwhile,no correlation was found between birch upslope migration and precipitation.Winds negatively influenced both birch area growth and birch upslope climb during spring,fall,and wintertime.In the windy habitats,birch,together with larch and Siberian pine,formed clusters(hedges)which mitigated the influence of adverse winds.These clusters are the adaptive pattern for trees’upslope climb within windward slopes.The other adaptation to the harsh alpine ecotone habitat is non-leaf(bark)photosynthesis which supports tree survival.Thereby,Betula tortuosa upslope climb depends on the wind impact and warming in spring and fall that extended growth period.With ongoing warming and observed wind speed decrease on the background of sufficient precipitation,it is expected to further birch advance into alpine tundra in the Siberian Mountains.

Altitudinal changes of surface pollen and vegetation on the north slope of the Middle Tianshan Mountains,China

To provide information on vegetation patterns and altitudinal distributions of pollen assemblage in surface soil layers,their complicated relationships in a dryland mountain-basin system in northwestern China and a realistic basis for paleovegetational reconstruction,we investigated 86 vegetation quadrats and analyzed 80 soil samples from the surface soil layers along an altitudinal transect on the north slope of the Middle Tianshan Mountains from alpine cushion vegetation at 3,510 m near glacier to desert vegetation at 460 m in the Gurbantunggut Desert.According to surface pollen assemblages and the results of the detrended correspondence analysis,the transect can be divided into six major altitudinal pollen zones as alpine cushion vegetation,alpine and subalpine meadows,montane Picea forest,forest-steppe ecotone,Artemisia desert and typical desert,which basically reflect the characteristics of the mountainous vegetation patterns on the north slope of the Middle Tianshan Mountains.However,Picea pollen also exists outside the spruce forest,Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia pollen appeared above the elevation of 1,300 m,indicating that most of them might be introduced from lower elevations by upslope winds.Airborne pollen researches from three regions at different elevations further suggest that a high-frequency northwest anabatic wind has a remarkable influence on the transportation and dispersion of surface pollen in the area.

“山水林田湖草沙生命共同体”耦合框架、模型与展望

“山水林田湖草沙生命共同体”系统保护与修复是我国生态文明建设的重要内容。明确生命共同体的耦合机制,是科学地进行生态保护和修复工作的关键。针对当前生命共同体耦合机制不清、理论和方法不健全的问题,从耦合的视角出发,在小流域尺度上单一生态系统内部生态要素的耦合、流域尺度上不同生态系统之间的耦合、区域尺度上人与自然的耦合三个方面进行整合,在此基础上探讨了多尺度山水林田湖草沙耦合理论,提出了一般性的山水林田湖草沙耦合理论框架。梳理并比较了当前主要的生态系统模型、景观模型、统计学模型以及复合生态系统的多模型耦合方法,综合提出了一个适用于“山水林田湖草沙生命共同体”耦合研究方法。对进一步完善山水林田湖草沙一体化保护修复提出了建议,包括:一是构建多源信息数据库,推进定量化耦合机制研究;二是开展全生命周期监测与评估,探索适应性治理路径;三是强化多元主体参与,完善协同保护机制。

大围山高山湿地植物多样性与区系组成研究

高山湿地在水源涵养、固碳、碳循环、保护生物多样性、生态系统恢复与重建等方面,具有重要的生态价值。湖南大围山国家森林公园具有丰富的高山湿地资源,具有较高的研究价值,但目前关于大围山高山湿地的相关研究还鲜有报道。通过实地调查,对大围山高山湿地植物的多样性和区系组成进行分析。结果表明,(1)大围山高山湿地植物共有59科103属126种,其中被子植物共计51科94属115种,优势科为禾本科、菊科、蓼科、蔷薇科、莎草科。(2)植物群落共计24个,Simpson多样性指数(D)值为0.331-1,Shannon-Wiener多样性指数(H)值为0-1.25,Pielou均匀度指数(E)值为0-0.998,物种丰富度(R)指数为1-6。(3)湿地植物物种丰富度与海拔呈单峰分布格局,即植物多样性随海拔的升高先增加后减小。(4)大围山高山湿地植物在科、属的区系组成上存在差异。从科的总体结构上看,世界广布类型具有26科,占总科数的49.1%;温带成分共计12科,占总科数的22.6%。从属的总体结构上看,世界广布共计24属,占总属数的24.7%;温带成分共计47属,占总属数的48.5%。总的来说,大围山高山湿地资源丰富,但由于人类活动干扰,如旅游活动等,部分湿地未得到有效保护,导致湿地部分旱化,面积萎缩等现象的出现。研究结果可为大围山高山湿地的生态恢复和保护提供基础数据支撑和科学依据。

Plant and fungal species interactions differ between aboveground and belowground habitats in mountain forests of eastern China

Plant and fungal species interactions drive many essential ecosystem properties and processes;however,how these interactions differ between aboveground and belowground habitats remains unclear at large spatial scales.Here,we surveyed 494 pairwise fungal communities in leaves and soils by Illumina sequencing,which were associated with 55 woody plant species across more than 2,000-km span of mountain forests in eastern China.The relative contributions of plant,climate,soil and space to the variation of fungal communities were assessed,and the plant-fungus network topologies were inferred.Plant phylogeny was the strongest predictor for fungal community composition in leaves,accounting for 19.1%of the variation.In soils,plant phylogeny,climatic factors and soil properties explained 9.2%,9.0%and 8.7%of the variation in soil fungal community,respectively.The plant-fungus networks in leaves exhibited significantly higher specialization,modularity and robustness(resistance to node loss),but less complicated topology(e.g.,significantly lower linkage density and mean number of links)than those in soils.In addition,host/fungus preference combinations and key species,such as hubs and connectors,in bipartite networks differed strikingly between aboveground and belowground samples.The findings provide novel insights into cross-kingdom(plant-fungus)species co-occurrence at large spatial scales.The data further suggest that community shifts of trees due to climate change or human activities will impair aboveground and belowground forest fungal diversity in different ways.