Detection of a mud volcano in the Weitan Banks area of the northern South China Sea

Situated between the petroliferous Cenozoic Zhujiang(Pearl)River Mouth Basin and the mud volcano-rich Mesozoic Dongsha Basin in the middle sector of the northern South China Sea,the Weitan Banks area has been previously mapped as a basement high that is composed of Mesozoic magmatic rocks.In this study,we present several favorable indicators for petroleum geology that were detected from geophysical profiling and benthic sampling in the area.A conspicuous hill was discovered,named“Zhongwei Hill”,~80 m high above the~340 m deep seafloor and~1 km broad,in a depression with more than 7 km thick sedimentary strata.The Zhongwei Hill was seismically imaged with a mushroom-shaped structure and containing a cake-like crown,fluid flow pipes,and an~10 km broad anticline at depth.Thus,the hill represents a source-plumbing-eruption system.Shallow gas zones linked to deep fracture were found at or near the hill.Stratigraphic correlation indicates that the deep strata comprise the Jurassic and Paleogene strata,the major hosts of hydrocarbon source rocks.In addition to the hill,there are number of mounds from which three bottom water samples were collected and the samples are rich in dissolved methane with concentrations high up to~900 nmol/L,much higher than the background level(0.5–2 nmol/L).The benthic samples are rich in coarse sediment clastics,authigenic carbonate nodules,and deep-water habitats likely feeding on methanotrophic community.Given these observations and the context,we propose that the Zhongwei Hill represents a mud volcano,likely thermally driven,that seeps methane from Jurassic and Paleogene source layers,thus poses a favorable clue for significant hydrocarbon generation capacity in transitional zone of the Zhujiang River Mouth Basin and the Dongsha Basin.

A Seismic Facies Analysis to Determine the Relative Age and History of the Al Idrissi Mud Volcano from Offshore Larache Located in the NW Moroccan Atlantic Margin

Formed on top of the Gulf of Cadiz, the Al Idrissi mud volcano is the shallowest and largest mud volcano in the El Arraiche mud volcano field of the northwestern Moroccan margin. The development and morphology of mud volcanoes from the El Arraiche mud volcanoes group have been studied at a large scale. However, the time interval related to their formation period still needs to be better understood. In this regard, we interpreted and analyzed the seismic facies from the 2D reflection data of the GEOMARGEN-1 campaign, which took place in 2011. The aim was to identify the seismic sequences and draw the Al Idrissi mud volcano system to determine the formation period of the Al Idriss mud volcano. And as a result, the Al Idrissi mud volcano system is made of both buried and superficial bicone and was identified along with the Upper Tortonian to Messinian-Upper Pliocene facies. As the initial mud volcano extrusive edifice, the buried bicone was formed in the Late-Messinian to Early-Pliocene period. However, the superficial bicone, as the final extrusive edifice, was included in the Late Pliocene. In this case, the timing interval between the buried and superficial bicone is equivalent to the Late-Messinian to Upper-Pliocene period. Therefore, the latter corresponds to the Al Idrissi mud volcano formation period.

Seismic Signature Analysis for Clarification of Mud Volcanoes from the New Mud Diapirs Discovered at the NE-SW Moroccan Atlantic Margin

Our aim is to clarify mud volcanoes from the new mud diapirs resulting from the seismic attributes analysis applied to the low resolution Burmah oil “1973-1974” seismic data. The latter was carried out on the Larache and Tanger-Larache offshores from the NE-SW Atlantic margin. The high resolution seismic data was essential for this evaluation. In this case, we applied seismic signature analysis to four seismic profiles from the map of the seismic data set, which includes all new mud diapirs. This helped us to classify different types of mud diapirs within the seismic profiles. And as a result, six deep mud diapirs from the Prerifaine Nappe of Morocco, a shallow mud diapir, and four seafloor-piercing mud diapirs have been observed. Furthermore, the seafloor-piercing mud diapirs show a mushroom-shaped and conical-shaped cone. As they break through the seafloor, these kinds of cones characterize mud volcanoes. In this case, we may conclude that the resultant seafloor-piercing mud diapirs are likely to be mud volcanoes. However, more geological sampling and seafloor observation are still required.

Mud Diapirism on the Makran, Iran: Case Study on the Napag Mud Volcano

The Napag is the biggest Mud Volcano at Makran in Iran. The main aim of this research is the investigation of geologic setting and geographic situation of Napag Mud Volcano as a well-known mud diapir at Makran on the south eastern margin of Iran. The Napag Mud Volcano has been formed during quaternary of as a conical hill on the flat plain in coastal region Oman Sea. There are badlands area and several mud volcanoes that they have been triggered by longitudinal normal faults. This normal faults have been developed in neotectonic regime by the roll-back of oceanic lithosphere (beneath of Oman Sea). Finally, the main characteristics of the Napag mud diapir are presented.

Studies on the Extraction Methods of Metagenomic DNA from Mud Volcano in Xinjiang

[Objective]To seek one effective extraction method of metagenomic DNA from mud volcano.[Method]The metagenomic DNA from mud volcano was extracted by CTAB extraction method,SDS-enzyme method,improved method,reagent kit method.The extraction of four kinds of methods were compared.[Result]The extracted rate in reagent sets method was the highest,next was improved method,the extracted quantity in SDS-enzyme method was maximum.DNA extracted by the improved method was diluted ten times for PCR.[Conclusion]Considering economy and purity,the improved method can be used as one effective extraction method of metagenomic DNA from mud volcano.

Iron Speciation of Mud Breccia from the Dushanzi Mud Volcano in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region,NW China

Organic-inorganic interactions occurring in petroleum-related mud volcanoes can help predict the chemical processes that are responsible for methane emissions to the atmosphere. Seven samples of mud breccia directly ejected from one crater were collected in the Dushanzi mud volcano, along with one argillite sample of the original reddish host rocks distal from the crater, for comparison purposes. The mineral and chemical compositions as well as iron species of all samples were determined using XRD, XRF and M?ssbauer spectroscopy, respectively. The results indicate that a series of marked reactions occurred in the mud volcano systems, more specifically in the mud breccia when compared to the original rocks. Changes mainly included:(1) some conversion of clay minerals from smectite into chlorite and illite, and the precipitation of secondary carbonate minerals such as calcite and siderite;(2) silicon depletion and significant elemental enrichment of iron, manganese, magnesium, calcium and phosphorus; and(3) transformation of iron from ferric species in hematite and smectite into ferrous species in siderite, chlorite and illite. These geochemical reactions likely induced the color changes of the original reddish Neogene argillite to the gray or black mud breccia, as a result of reduction of elements and/or alteration of minerals associated with the oxidation of hydrocarbons. Our results also suggest that greenhouse gases emitted from the mud volcanoes are lowered through a series of methane oxidation reactions and carbon fixation(i.e., through carbonate precipitation).

Seismic Characteristics and Hydrocarbon Accumulation Associated with Mud Diapir Structures in a Superimposed Basin in the Southern South China Sea Margin

Mud diapirs are significant structures often associated with hydrocarbon migration and accumulation as well as gas hydrate formation in sedimentary basins.A total of 30 mud diapirs were observed in the northwestern Zengmu Basin in the southern South China Sea based on 2D multichannel seismic data.The structures are distributed along an NW-SE trend near the shelf break of the Kangxi depression in the Zengmu Basin.The mud diapirs were divided into the following according to their vertical shapes,intrusion heights,and effusive activities:tortoise,piercing,and nozzle types,which represent different evolutionary stages of diapirism.The mud diapirs in the study area suggest that the driving forces behind the mud diapirs considerably exceed the rock rupture limit of the overlying strata.Diapir formation can be divided into two steps:the accommodation of a large amount of mud in the Zengmu Basin and the movement of plastic mud induced by gravity-driven flow and regional tectonic compression.Combining seismic interpretations with analyses of the regional geology and tectonic subsidence,the current study proposes that rapid subsidence in the Kangxi depression sufficiently accommodated the vast amount of sediments deposited since the Middle Miocene,which provided favorable conditions for the growth of mud diapirs.Furthermore,the N-S directional stress field in the Zengmu Basin and the gravity slide northward along the southern slope of the depression further facilitated the development of mud diapirs since the late Miocene.The mud diapirs in the southern South China Sea margins were accompanied by the accumulation and release of overpressured fluid.

Mud volcanoes in the South Caspian basin: Nature and estimated depth of its products

In paper based on the results of previous studies and latest investigations of mud volcanoes in the South Caspian basin the depth occurrence of fluid, mud and rocks are calculated and modeled. Major factors causing formation of diapirism/mud volcanism in the South Caspian basin are Pliocene-Quaternary high sedimentation rates (up to 3 km/my), super thick sedimentary cover (up to 25-30 km), predominance of clayey rocks (reaching 80%) in the section, low temperatures (with 15℃-18℃/km gradient), overpressures reaching lithostatic, the onset of petroleum generation lowered to considerable depths. The majority of the mud volcanoes are associated with the petroleum bearing structures. Depths where the liquid, gaseous and solid products of mud volcanoes are sourced appear to be different. The gases have the deepest roots (7-15 km) which are the main force in formation and activity of MVs. Source of the fluidized clayey mass does not lie below 3-4 km. Oils emitted by mud volcanoes are the product of destruction of petroleum accumulations occurring beneath them.

UAV Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing of an Italian Mud Volcano

Extreme environments like active volcanoes exhibit many difficulties in being studied by in situ techniques. For example, during eruptions, summit areas are very hard to be accessed because of logistics problems and/or volcanic hazards. The use of remote sensing techniques in the last 20 years by satellite or airborne platforms has proven their capabilities in mapping and monitoring the evolution of volcanic activity. This approach has become increasingly important, as much interest is actually focused on understanding precursory signals to volcanic eruptions. In this work we verify the use of cutting-edge technology like unmanned flying system thermally equipped for volcanic applications. We present the results of a flight test performed by INGV in collaboration with the University of Bologna (Aerospace Division) by using a multi-rotor aircraft in a hexacopter configuration. The experiment was realized in radio controlled mode to overcome many regulation problems which, especially in Italy, limit the use of this system in autonomous mode. The overall goal was not only qualitative but also quantitative oriented. The system flew above an Italian mud volcano, named Le Salinelle, located on the lower South West flank of Mt. Etna volcano, which was chosen as representative site, providing not only a discrimination between hot and cold areas, but also the corresponding temperature values. The in-flight measurements have been cross-validated with contemporaneous in-situ acquisition of thermal data and from independent measurements of mud/water temperature.

Combustion Metamorphic Rocks as a Sign of Ancient Mud Volcanoes

Zones of combustion metamorphism(CM)are frequently associated with oil fields and adjacent bituminous marine sediments.A typical example is the Mottled Zone(MZ)complexes located within carbonate strata at the western margin of the Arabian petroleum province(Israel,Jordan).Being localized upon the eroded surface of Upper Cretaceous stratum, the MZ complexes are composed of brecciated sediments of the underlying Cretaceous sequence uplifted from depths of at least 1.5 km.They

Mud Diapirism on the Gorgan, North Iran

The several mud volcanoes have been exposed at the Gorgan area in the north Iran. The Garniarig-Tapeh is the biggest mud volcano and the investigation of its tectonic geomorphology is the main aim in this paper. Also, we have determinated tectonic and geologic setting of Naft-Lije mud volcanoes and several Salses as the exposed mud diapirs at Gorgan on the northern margin of Iran. These mud volcanoes have been formed during quaternary of as a shield shape hill or pool on the flat plain in coastal region SE Caspian Sea. There are flat area and several mud volcanoes that they have been triggered by buoyant driving mechanisms, have been appeared during dormant periods of mud volcanoes activity. This mechanism has been developed in neotectonic regime by convergent setting between The Cimmerian and Eurasian plates. Finally, the main characteristics of the Gorgan area have presented.

Physical and chemical changes of water in the deep interior of the Earth―Decrepitation-style mud-volcano-earthquake―A bright lamp to shed light on the mysteries of the deep interior of the Earth

The 2008-05-12 Wenchuan mud-volcano-earthquake was accompanied with eruption of a huge volume of gas and stone,revealing that earthquakes generally result from instant reverse phase explosion of supercritical water(SCW) at the supercritical point.In the deep parts of the crust and mantle there still exists a large amount of supercritical water equivalent in order of magnitude to that of the Earth's hydrosphere.Soft fluids which exist in the MOHO at the top of the upper mantle are the so-called deep supercritical fluids(SCWD).Supercritical water(SCW) has n×103 times strong capability to dissolve gas.Its viscosity is extremely low and its diffusivity is extremely strong.Therefore,it can naturally migrate toward a region with relatively negative pressure.In the steep break zone of the MOHO at the 57-65 km depth beneath the earthquake belt,due to mutation of overburden pressure,SCWD can automatically separate out CaSiO3 and other inorganic salts,evolving into the SCW(H2O-CO2-CH4O system.In going upwards to the 10-20-km depth of the crust SCW will be accumulated as an earthquake-pregnant reservoir in the broken terrain.The phase-transition heat of SCW is estimated at 606.62 kJ/kg and the reverse phasing kinetic energy is 2350.8 kJ/kg.When automatic exhaust at the time of decompression reaches the critical pressure(Pc),the instant explosion reverse phase will be normal-state air water.It will release a huge volume of energy and high-kinetic-energy gas which has been expanded by a factor of 1000,leading to the breaking of the country rocks overlying the earthquake-pregnant reservoir,thus giving rise to a Ms 8.0 earthquake.As a result,there were formed eruptive and air-driven(pneumatic) debris flows whose volumatric flow rate reaches n×1014 m3/s,and their force greatly exceeds the power of INT explosive of the same equivalent value.

Mud Volcano: Revealing the Stratigraphy of Kendeng Basin, Indonesia

The Kendeng Basin, the major depocenter of the East Java Basin, has been filled with deep-sea clastic volcanic deposits since the Middle Tertiary, which developed into volcanic deposits in the Quaternary. With thick Quaternary volcanic deposits covering almost the entire basin, outcrops are only found in the north, forming a fold-thrust belt structure. The oldest known stratigraphic unit is the early Miocene Pelang Formation, which was deposited in the lower to the upper bathyal zone. Rocks older than the Pelang Formation have not been identified in this basin either from outcrops or drill-hole data. However, the geochemical analysis of oil seepage proves to be different because the oil source rock in Kendeng Basin was interpreted to be of older lithology than the Pelang Formation, indicating a potentially older stratigraphic unit in the Kendeng Basin that has not been revealed to date. Mud volcanoes transported rock material from the Kendeng Basin to the surface, uncovering the stratigraphy that has been an enigma. The material in question includes Nummulites limestones, conglomerates, and quartz sandstones. Paleontological analysis results on rock fragments indicate that they belong to the Middle Eocene age, so they are older than the Pelang Formation. Mud volcano also carried younger limestones to the surface identified as Miocene Age (equivalent with the Pelang Formation), which were deposited in a middle neritic environment, so they provided information that shallow areas possibly formed a horst-graben structure during the Miocene in the Kendeng Basin. The appearance of Eocene and Miocene rock fragments can be used to complement the stratigraphy and it also provides a potentially new concept of source-reservoir rock in the Kendeng Basin.

Geophysical evidence of a large occurrence of mud volcanoes associated with gas plumbing system in the Ross Sea(Antarctica)

Seafloor and buried reliefs occur along continental margin of the Ross Sea(Antarctica).These features are several kilometres wide and tens of metres high,exhibiting cone or flat-top dome shapes.Previous studies have proposed a volcanic or glacial origin for these formations,but these hypotheses do not account for all the available evidence.In this study,we use morpho-bathymetric data,intermediate resolution multichannel seismic and high resolution chirp profiles,as well as magnetic lines to investigate these clusters of mounds.By employing targeted processing techniques to enhance the geophysical characterization of the seafloor and buried reliefs,and to understand the underlying geological features,we propose that the reliefs are mud volcanoes.Some of these formations appear to be associated with a plumbing system,as indicated by acoustic anomalies linked to sediment containing gas.These formations are likely fed by clayey source rocks of Miocene age.Additionally,other reliefs might be the result of mud mobilisation caused by gravity instability and fluid overpressure.

Test Investigation on Liquefied Deformation Structure in Saturated Lime-Mud Composites Triggered by Strong Earthquakes

Three identical model boxes were made from transparent plexiglass and angle iron. Using the method of sinking water and according to the sedimentary rhythm of saturated calcium carbonate （lime-mud） intercalated with cohesive soil, calcites with particle sizes diameters of ≤ 5 μm, 10–15 μm and 23–30 μm as well as cohesive soil were sunk alternatively in water of three boxes to build three test models, each of which has a specific size of calcite. Pore water pressure gauges were buried in lime-mud layers at different depths in each model, and connected with a computer system to collect pore water pressures. By means of soil tests, physical property parameters and plasticity indices （Ip） were obtained for various grain-sized saturated lime-muds. The lime-muds with Ip ranging from 6.3 to 8.5 （lower than 10） are similar to liquid saturated silt in the physical nature, indicating that saturated silt can be liquefied once induced by a strong earthquake. One model cart was pushed quickly along the length direction of the model so that its rigid wheels collided violently with the stone stair, thus generating an artificial earthquake with seismic wave magnitude greater than VI degree. When unidirectional cyclic seismic load of horizontal compression-tension-shear was imposed on the soil layers in the model, enough great pore water pressure has been accumulated within pores of lime-mud, resulting in liquefaction of lime-mud layers. Meanwhile, micro-fractures formed in each soil layer provided channels for liquefaction dewatering, resulting in formation of macroscopic liquefaction deformation, such as liquefied lime-mud volcanoes, liquefied diapir structures, vein-like liquefied structures and liquefied curls, etc. Splendid liquefied lime-mud eruption lasted for two to three hours, which is similar to the sand volcano eruption induced by strong earthquake. However, under the same artificial seismic conditions, development of macroscopic liquefied structures in three experimental models varied in shape, depth and quantity, indicating that excess pore water pressure ratios at initial liquefaction stage and complete liquefaction varied with depth. With size increasing of calcite particle in lime-mud, liquefied depth and deformation extent increase accordingly. The simulation test verifies for the first time that strong earthquakes may cause violent liquefaction of saturated lime-mud composed of micron-size calcite particles, uncovering the puzzled issue whether seafloor lime-mud can be liquefied under strong earthquake. This study not only provides the latest simulation data for explaining the earthquake-induced liquefied deformations of saturated lime-mud and seismic sedimentary events, but also is of great significance for analysis of foundation stability in marine engineering built on the soft calcium carbonate layers in neritic environment.

新疆北天山地区泥火山变化特征及其在震情跟踪中的应用

泥火山在新疆北天山地区有广泛的分布,泥火山活动时可将大量深层有价值的信息带到地表,通过跟踪分析其活动特征和喷涌物化学组分变化,为区域中强地震预测提供可靠依据。本文首先介绍新疆北天山地区泥火山分布及活动特征,简述泥火山监测的发展历程:连续监测方式由1990年的喷涌“脉冲”记录,到2011年的视频实时监控,再到2023年实现了特定气体流量的连续在线监测。总结周边300km范围内天山中段发生的9次5级和4次6级地震震例发现,泥火山异常活动特征为“背景值-上升-转折-下降-背景值”的时间进程变化,异常开始距发震时间为6~12个月,地震多发生在转折后,可将其作为天山中段中强震震情跟踪的中期指标;泥火山喷涌物中的地球化学组分为高值异常,离子(F-、CO_(3)^(2-)等)可作为中强震震情跟踪的短期指标,逸出气体(CH_(4)、Rn等)可作为中期指标。最后,利用新源—和静6.6级、呼图壁6.2级和精河6.6级3个地震回顾了乌苏艾其沟等泥火山在震情跟踪中的实际应用情况。

非洲西海岸里奥-德雷盆地泥底辟平面地质结构特征研究

位于西非尼日尔三角洲盆地东缘的里奥-德雷盆地发育了大规模泥底辟,其活动时间和形成机理存在一定争议。基于对里奥-德雷盆地三维地震剖面的精细解释和平面成图,对其中中新世Nguti构造层顶面的泥底辟平面分布特征进行了重新厘定。结果表明:(1)Nguti构造层顶面的泥底辟可分为北部隐伏区、中部刺穿区和南部刺穿区;(2)北部隐伏区的泥底辟形成于Nguti构造层沉积前,是受早期沉积作用控制的被动泥底辟;中部刺穿区的泥底辟形成于上新世S0构造层沉积前,是受重力构造作用控制的主动泥底辟;南部刺穿区的泥底辟形成于Nguti构造层沉积后,是受重力构造前缘逆冲断层控制的逆冲泥底辟;(3)泥底辟整体上为向南凸出的舌状体,分东、西两段,西段为北北西-北西走向,东段为北北东-北东走向。

基于CEL算法的神狐海域泥火山内部物质运动过程数值模拟

以南海北部神狐海域地震剖面识别的泥火山为基础,基于耦合的欧拉-拉格朗日算法(CEL)模拟了泥火山内部物质的运动过程。通过不同阶段的对比分析,研究探讨了泥火山的形成机理,总结了泥火山内部物质的运动特征及规律。数值模型的结果显示泥火山形成过程中物质的运移具有明显的阶段性变化,展现了物质在运移时的应力与应变的不规则变化规律,本文根据这些变化分析了泥火山形成过程中应力、应变与能量的强度变化趋势。地层在物质向上刺穿过程中受力分布表现出明显的不均匀性,中间部位的突起破裂引起两侧地层的隆升。由模拟结果提供的泥火山形成过程中内部物质的特征,可以推动对泥火山形成机制及过程的进一步认识,同时也能对深部底辟构造以及油气迁移提供理论指导。

An explosive mud volcano origin for the pitted cones in southern Utopia Planitia,Mars

Pitted cones are cone-shaped structures,spanning from meters to kilometers in size,characterized by summit depressions.They are widely distributed on the surface of Mars with various origins,such as rootless cones,mud volcanoes,cinder or scoria cones,tuff rings or cones,pingos,and dirt cones.If the pitted cones identified in southern Utopia Planitia are mud volcanoes,as is speculated,they could be of particular interest due to the fact that mud volcanoes on Earth bring sediments from a depth of meters to kilometers to the surface.In this study,we have investigated the pitted cones near Zhurong rover’s landing site in southern Utopia Planitia,utilizing recent images and digital elevation models obtained from the High Resolution Imaging Camera instrument onboard China’s Tianwen-1 orbiter.By leveraging the high-resolution images and digital elevation models,we have conducted a geometric measurement to distinguish the origin of pitted cones in the vicinity of the Zhurong rover.The morphological characteristics of these pitted cones indicate an explosive mud volcano origin.These explosive mud volcanoes could have formed by the violent eruption of subsurface overpressurized sediments generated from the combined effect of overburden pressure and anomalous high heat flow.The sediments forming the pitted cones in the northern plains could be the remnants of an ancient ocean.With future in-situ observations of these pitted cones,we hope to gain further insights into the sediments of the putative northern ocean,as well as the physical and chemical properties of the Martian subsurface during the formation of the pitted cones.

Studies on biodiversity and bioprospecting of active mud volcano associated bacteria and actinobacteria from Baratang,Andaman Islands,India

A total of 79 bacteria and 101 actinobacteria strains were isolated from the sediment samples of the different points of Baratang mud volcano viz.,point of the eruption(M),middle of the volcano(MD),and the dried part of the mud volcano(E).Based on the biochemical and molecular characterization,the isolates were categorized under the phyla Proteobacteria,Firmicutes and Proteobacteria included representatives of Classes Alphaproteobacteria,Gammaproteobacteria and Deltaproteobacteria of 29 genera with 38 distinct ribotypes.Thirty-eight bacterial strains from four different regions of mud volcano revealed excellent activity for indole-3-acetic acid(IAA)production.Excellent antagonistic property,plant growth promoting properties such as IAA production,phosphate,potassium and zinc solubilization were identified in Bacillus megaterium NIOT_MV 31 strain of 38 studied isolates.In this study,we investigated the optimization of IAA production by B.megaterium NIOT_MV 31 and its formulation as a plant growth promoter to improve economic and agricultural development.Maximum IAA yield was achieved using optimal conditions(42.63 mg/mL)in the presence of optimized tryptophan after 4 days of incubation.Twofold increase in the plant growth parameters were observed to that of control plants.Optimization of culture conditions resulted in a fourfold increase in IAA production by B.megaterium NIOT_MV 31 cells.The results clearly demonstrated that,B.megaterium NIOT_MV 31 holds great potential as a source for IAA production and may be useful for commercial applications.