A Report on a Biotite-Calcic Hornblende Geothermometer

This paper presents a biotite-calcic hornblende geothermometer which wasempirically calibrated based on the garnet-biotite geothermometer and thegarnet-plagioclase-hornblende-quartz geobarometer, in the ranges of 560-800 deg C (T) and 0.26-l.4GPa (P) using the data of metadolerite, amphibolite, metagabbro, and metapelite collected from theliterature. Biotite was treated as symmetric Fe-Mg-Al^VI-Ti quaternary solid solution, and calcichornblende was simplified as symmetric Fe-Mg binary solid solution. The resulting thermometer mayrebuild the input garnet-biotite temperatures well within an uncertainty of + - 50 deg C. Errors of+- 0.2 GPa for input pressure, along with analytical errors of = - 5 percent for the relevantmineral compositions, may lead to a random error of + - 16 deg C for this thermometer, so that thethermometer is almost independent of pressure estimates. The thermometer may clearly discriminatedifferent rocks of lower amphibolite, upper amphibolite and granulite facies on a high confidencelevel. It is assumed that there is a ferric iron content of 11.6 percent in biotite, and that theiron content in calcic hornblende may be calculated according to the method of Dale et al. (2000).This thermometer can be used for medium- to high-grade metabasites and metapelites.

Reconstruction of deep fluid chemical constituents for estimation of geothermal reservoir temperature using chemical geothermometers

This paper elaborates the chemical constituent change principles of deep geothermal fluid during the process of upward movement. It summarizes research methods of hydrochemistry, isotope and numerical modelling technique for the physiochemical processes such as decreasing temperature, shallow groundwater infusion, and degassing. The multi-component chemical geothermometry methods including gas geochemical method are discussed. High-temperature geothermal fields in China are mostly located in the southwest with frequent new tectonic movements, especially in Tibet high-temperature geothermal areas. Therefore the paper also focuses the status of high-temperature geothermal fluid research. At last, it's pointed out in the paper that in the future we can start from typical high-temperature geothermal zones and geothermal fields to explore optimization of the multi-component geothermometry method and use it in the reconstruction and analogue of the formation mechanism and internal relevancy of regional geothermal systems.

An Experimental Calibration on the Sphalerite-Galena Sulfur Isotope Geothermometer

A new experimental calibration was undertaken in this study to get a more reliable sphalerite-galena sulfur isotope geothermometer. The experimental conditions selected in study were very similar to those of natural hydrothermal solution. The high-precision SF6 method was used in sulfur isotope analyses. The obtained calibration curve for sulfur isotope fractionation between sphalerite and galena can be expressed with the equation 10001nαSp-Gn= 0.74×106T-2+0.08.

Quartz-Ferberite Oxygen Isotope Geothermometer and Its Geological Applications

Experiments for oxygen isotope exchange between ferberite and water were carried out and the followingequation on oxygen isotope fractionation between ferberite and water against temperature was obtained:Combining this equation with the equation of Clayton et al. (1972) on oxygen isotope fractionation be-tween quartz and water, an equation on oxygen isotope fractionation between quartz and ferberite was ob-tained:The Bigeleison-Mayer function method was used to calculate the oxygen isotope fractionation betweenquartz and ferberite. The theoretical curve obtained agrees with the experimental calibration results quite wellin the temperature range of study.The above calibrated equation has been used in 5 world famous tungsten deposits to determine their tem-peratures of formation. The results show that the temperature range for an idividual deposit determined by thisgeothermometer agrees with those obtained from fluid inclusion determination and other isotopegeothermometers.

Estimation of reservoir temperature using silica and cationic solutes geothermometers:a case study in the Tengchong geothermal area

Reservoir temperature estimation is vitally important for assessing the exploitation potential of a geothermal field.In this study,the concentrations of major chemical constituents in geothermal water sampled from boiling and hot springs in the Tengchong hydrothermal area were measured,and quartz and cationic solutes geothermometers were used to calculate subsurface temperatures.Log(Q/K) diagrams and Na-K-Mg triangular diagrams were applied to evaluating the equilibrium status of geothermal water samples with regard to reservoir minerals,and results were used to select suitable geothermometers.The results show that samples RH01,RH03,RH04,RH05,and LL16 were in or very close to full equilibrium with the selected minerals,and therefore a NaK geothermometer is appropriate.A K/Mg geothermometer,however,is applicable to LP08 and PZH18 whose chemical compositions adjusted to the shallow reservoir temperatures during their re-equilibrium processes.In contrast,cationic solute geothermometers are unsuitable for SQ20 and RH07,which are categorized as immature water in the Na-K-Mg diagram;a quartz geothermometer was adopted to evaluate the corresponding subsurface temperatures of these samples.According to the reservoir temperature estimation made in this study,there is at least one high-temperature reservoir below Rehai with a possible temperature range of 210-270 ℃.

An Improved Experimental Calibration of the Olivine-Spinel Geothermometer

The calibration of the olivine-spinel geothermometer by Fabries(1979) is commonly adopted by a number of petrologists.But the temperatures calculated in this way for ultramafic focks are significantly lower than those obtained by the pyroxene geothermometers.These O1-Sp temperatures are also lower than those measured experi-mentally in the natural system (four-phase lherzolite).Different rates of cation diffusion cannot fully account for these differences.The temperature deviation is actually related to the inconsistencies between natural and experimental data which support the calibration .A re-evaluation of the calibration is proposed on the basis of a set of new experimental data.

Reviews in Garnet-Biotite Geothermometer: Its Versions, Inherent Problems of Accuracy and Precision, and Perspective for Further Research

This paper briefly introduces twenty one versions of garnet biotite Fe Mg exchange geothermometry, points out the sources of systematic errors inherent in geothermometry. The sources lie in that: (1) ideal Fe Mg mixing in garnet and biotite is assumed; (2) non ideal properties of both garnet and biotite are not considered completely; (3) minor elements—Mn, Ca in garnet, and Al Ⅵ, Ti, Mn in biotite are almost neglected; (4) effects of pressure on equilibrium, although little, are almost not taken into consideration, and experiments were conducted at one fixed pressure; (5) the data used for regression analysis is too scarce in quantity; (6) internal consistency of the data used for empirical calibration is not fully guaranteed; (7) the authors take energy parameters W’s (Margule’s parameters) independent of pressure and temperature, though the former are actually the functions of the latter items; and (8) the most important composition activity relationship is not consistent with the mineral compositions used for calibration. Furthermore, it is believed that empirical calibrations cannot avoid the following problems: (1) effect of retrograde metamorphism; (2) inconsistent data set; (3) effect of pressure on temperature estimation; and (4) effect of Fe 3+ calculation. Exact experimental work should be done in order to accurately calibrate the geothermometer in which the Margule’s parameters should be treated as the functions of pressure, temperature, and mineral compositions.

方解石双晶古温标基本原理及其利用--以川南上奥陶统五峰组-下志留统龙马溪组为例

我国西部盆地深层—超深层古老碳酸盐岩层系由于缺少传统古温标/地质热温度计,其盆地热史演化与古地温场特征备受争议。笔者等介绍方解石机械双晶形成演化机制及其与变形温度相关性,以川南地区上奥陶统五峰组—下志留统龙马溪组脉体方解石为例,结合流体地球化学和埋深热史过程恢复,表明方解石机械双晶能有效揭示五峰组—龙马溪组热史特征。方解石机械双晶具有双晶位错形成、双晶增厚和合并生长增厚的3个演化过程,导致方解石不同双晶结构(薄片、板状、锥状弧形等)分别形成于低于170℃、170~200℃和大于200℃环境,且伴随温度增大具有双晶密度减小、宽度增大的趋势特征。川南威远地区五峰组—龙马溪组发育典型板状方解石双晶,双晶宽度为1~4μm、密度30~50条/mm;长宁五峰组—龙马溪组方解石双晶宽度较大(约为3μm)、密度较低(15~20条/mm)。包裹体均一温度和埋深热史综合表明,长宁地区包裹体均一温度峰值为120~140℃、160~180℃和200~220℃,其埋藏热史明显大于威远地区,它们共同揭示长宁地区五峰组—龙马溪组相对威远地区具有较高的机械双晶形成环境温度。因而,方解石机械双晶形态几何学能够作为典型的古温标应用于我国西部古老深层碳酸盐岩层系热史研究。

水热型地热系统水文地球化学研究进展

水热型地热系统是指以水或蒸汽为主要热储介质和热传导介质的地热系统,作为主要的地热资源类型,具有重要科学研究和开发利用价值。综述水热型地热系统的水文地球化学研究方法和进展,主要包括以下几个方面:水化学研究方法,介绍传统水文地球化学方法、多元统计分析方法和机器学习的非线性分析方法,以及不同方法的特点;同位素技术,概述常用的同位素技术在水热系统中的用途和应用实例,以及近期在地热研究中出现的同位素指标;地热温度计,介绍传统地球化学温标温度计、多组分地热温度计和基于活度理论的地热温度计,对比它们的适用条件和优缺点,旨在为水热型地热系统的地球化学研究提供一个基础性的参考框架。未来应该加强水化学特征分析方法的优化和标准化、同位素技术精度的提高、地热温度计的适用性和可靠性评估等方面,以实现水文地球化学方法在水热型地热资源勘查中的高效应用。

黑云母温度计能否用于估计花岗质侵入岩的结晶温度?

为了探讨黑云母温度计是否适用于估计花岗质侵入岩的结晶温度,汇编了国内外典型花岗质侵入体的岩石化学和矿物化学数据,利用Henry等(2005)的黑云母Ti饱和温度计、Li和Zhang(2022)的黑云母全组分温度计估算了岩浆温度,并与Shao等(2020)的锆饱和温度计估算结果进行了对比。结果表明,黑云母Ti饱和温度计估算的温度比锆饱和温度计和黑云母全组分温度计低50~200℃,因此认为黑云母Ti饱和温度计并不适用于估算花岗质侵入岩的结晶温度,而黑云母全组分温度计可以复现S型和I型花岗岩的锆饱和温度计结果。

吉林省西岔金银矿床多阶段石英原位组成及地质意义

西岔金银矿床为早白垩世中温热液脉型,主要产金,伴生银。成矿过程先后经历了热液成矿期和表生成矿期。其中,热液成矿期可划分为3个成矿阶段,每个成矿阶段都发育热液石英。利用LA-ICP-MS原位微区分析技术,对不同成矿阶段石英开展了微量元素组成分析。结果显示,第二阶段为主成矿阶段,矿化最为强烈,是金的主要生成阶段。载金矿物以硫化物为主,但第二阶段Sb、Bi含量显著升高,Au、Ag与Cu、Pb、Zn等金属元素具有正相关关系,说明主成矿阶段的载金矿物可能还有碲化物和铋化物,以微颗粒形式包裹于石英中。基于热液石英Ti含量构建的石英Ti地质温度计显示,热液成矿期成矿温度逐渐降低。石英中Al、Ti、Li含量的规律性变化,表明成矿流体pH逐渐升高,由最初的酸性逐渐向中性、弱碱性演化。

水化学和同位素揭示的广东儒洞地热咸水形成机制

地热咸水的形成机制是开发地热资源的重要参考,地热咸水中的化学组分可以揭示经历的水化学作用,同位素的示踪可以指示地下水的来源和水化学过程。因此,选用水化学和同位素来揭示广东儒洞地热咸水的来源和形成机制。研究表明,广东儒洞地热田发育高盐度地热水(TDS>8000 mg/L),Cl^(-)和Ca^(2+)的含量分别高达5059.76 mg/L和1991.42 mg/L,为Cl^(-)Ca·Na型水。K-Mg温标和玉髓温标估算热储温度88.13~121.42℃,循环深度1963~2790 m。水文地质条件和氢氧同位素结果证实,地热水来自于东部丘陵地区的大气降水补给,补给高程为260~315 m。通过离子比例系数和^(87)Sr/^(86)Sr分析,儒洞地热田地下水运移的环境较封闭,高温下发生了较充分的花岗岩矿物的溶解,同时围岩中蒸发成因盐岩的溶解提供了主要水化学组分,海水入侵的可能性较小,地热咸水和围岩存在一定的阳离子交换作用。因此,围岩中的蒸发成因盐岩的溶解和花岗岩矿物的溶解是地热咸水化学成分形成的主因。

Geochemistry, mineral paragenesis and geothermal conditions of oreforming fluids from the Ain El Bey Cu–Fe deposit: potential occurrence of native gold and precious metal traces (North African orogenic belt, Northern Tunisia)

The Ain El Bey abandoned mine, in North-West Tunisia, fits into the geodynamic context of the European and African plate boundary. Ore deposit corresponds to veins and breccia of multiphase Cu–Fe-rich mineralization related to various hydrothermal fluid circulations. Petromineralogical studies indicate a rich mineral paragenesis with a minimum of seven mineralization phases and, at least, six pyrite generations. As is also the case for galena and native silver, native gold is observed for the first time as inclusion in quartz which opens up, thus, new perspectives for prospecting and evaluating the potential for noble metals associated with the mineralization. Scanning Electron Microscope--Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy and Transmission electron microscopy analyses show, in addition, a large incorporation of trace elements, including Ag and Au, in mineral structures such as fahlores(tetrahedrite-tennantite) and chalcopyrite ones. The mineral/mineral associations, used as geothermometers, gave estimated temperatures for the mineralizing fluids varying from 254 to 330 ℃ for phase Ⅲ, from 254 to 350 ℃ for phase Ⅳ, and from 200 to 300 ℃ for phases Ⅴ and Ⅵ. The seventh and last identified mineralization phase, marked by a deposit of native gold, reflects a drop in the mineralizing fluid’s temperature(< 200 ℃) compatible with boiling conditions. Such results open up perspectives for the development of precious metal research and the revaluation of the Cu–Fe ore deposit at the Ain El Bey abandoned mine, as well as at the surrounding areas fitting in the geodynamic framework of the Africa-Europe plate boundary.

水文地球化学方法在地热资源勘查中的应用:以湖北省应城市为例

地热流体水文地球化学研究在指示地热资源的形成机制、赋存环境以及预测地热资源有利勘查区等方面具有广泛应用。为了探究湖北省应城市地热系统的热源以及成因机制,并对其地热异常区进行圈定。基于研究区内地热水与浅层地下冷水的水化学及同位素特征,探讨了地热流体中主要组分的地球化学起源,评估了地热流体的热储温度。结合区内浅层地下冷水的温度与水化学数据,对地热异常区进行了圈定。研究结果表明,地热水水化学类型主要为SO 4-Ca型,地热系统主要的热储围岩为海相碳酸盐岩,通过地热温标计算热储温度约112.2℃。大气降水入渗和碳酸盐岩热储层中的水-岩相互作用是地热水中化学组分的主要来源。地热水的水化学和氢氧同位素特征指示地热水的补给来源为研究区西部山区的大气降水,大气降水由补给区入渗后向东南盆地中心不断运移,循环深度为3436.7~5030.2 m。通过与典型岩浆热源型地热系统的对比以及岩石样品中放射性元素的数据结果,得出应城地热系统是由地温梯度正常加热而形成的。结合区内浅层地下冷水的温度与水化学数据,最终圈定地热异常区位于应城市区西南陈河镇以北地区,但仍需考虑井深、人为污染等客观限制因素对圈定结果的影响。

Establishing geothermometric constraints on the local geothermal gradients:Case study of the Eastern Cordillera Basin,Colombia

Geochemical analyses were performed on 170 coal bed-trapped groundwater samples from 97 underground mines located in the Eastern Cordillera Basin, Colombia. The waters analyzed in this paper are from exploited coal beds, located up to 0.73 km deep, which emerge along with the local fault systems.The hydrochemical facies were classified based on the concentration of major ions by inferring the equilibrium state and rock water source. The main hydrochemical facies presented in the groundwater study are SO_4-Ca-Mg, HCO_3-Ca, HCO_3-Ca-Mg, and SO_4-HCO_3 mixed waters. We used geothermometric equations to estimate the most probable temperature under in-situ conditions and the propagation of errors theory to test the results. The geothermal gradient in the study area is close to 30℃/km, which is consistent with measurements from oil wells within the study area. Principal Component Analysis was used to explain factors affecting formation water composition and hydrogeochemical evolution of aquifers.

Gas Geothermometry in the Hveragerdi High-Temperature Geothermal Field, SW Iceland

Five gas geothermometers based on the concentrations of CO\-2, H\-2S, H\-2, CH\-4, N\-2 and Ar in fumaroles and wet\|steam wells are applied to estimating subsurface temperatures in the Hveragerdi high\|temperature geothermal field, SW Iceland. The results for fumaroles indicate that the calculated subsurface temperatures decrease from the northern part to the southern part of the field. The CO\-2\|geothermometer gives the highest temperature values, with an average of 256℃ for the northern part, and 247℃ for the southern part. The H\-2S\|geothermometer reveals an aquifer temperature of 211℃ for the northern part, and 203℃ for the southern part. The H\-2\|geothermometer gives an average subsurface temperature of 229℃ for the northern part, and 184℃ for the southern part, which agrees excellently with the measured temperatures in wet\|steam wells. The measured borehole temperatures in the field range from 215℃ to 230℃ for the northern part, and from 167℃ to 198℃ for the southern part. The CO\-2/H\-2\|geothermometer gives the lowest subsurface temperature values, with an average of 203℃ for the northern part, and 143℃ for the southern part. The CO\-2/N\-2\|geothermometer gives 249℃ for the northern part and 235℃ for the southern part. For the data from wells, the CO\-2\|, H\-2S\|, and H\-2\|geothermometers, give average subsurface temperatures of 247℃ for the northern part and 246℃ for the southern part, 213℃ for the northern part and 220℃ for the southern part, and 217℃ for the northern part and 216℃ for the southern part, respectively. The CO\-2/H\-2\|geothermometer indicates an average subsurface temperature of about 200℃ for both the northern part and the southern part. The CO\-2/N\-2\|geothermometer gives an average subsurface temperature of 180℃ for the northern part and 259℃ for the southern part. The discrepancy between the estimated subsurface temperatures obtained by the various gas geothermometers has been explained in this paper. By integrating the solute geothermometric results, mixing model studies and gas geothermometric results, the maximum subsurface temperatures of the Hveragerdi high\|temperature geothermal system may be considered to be about 240-260℃.

福建盐田海水补给型地热系统地球化学特征及其成因

海水补给型地热系统具有补给资源量大,但温度低、水质咸化等特点,查明沿海地热水循环补给条件和成因机制,对东南沿海地热资源的合理开发利用和保护具有重要意义。在泉州官桥盐田地热区分别采集了地热水、地下水和海水样品14个,利用水化学同位素特征分析和地球化学温标法,揭示了官桥盐田地热水循环补给和地热资源成因机制。结果表明:地热水水化学类型为Cl—Na型水,与海水水化学类型一致;H01和H02的溶解性固体总量(TDS)分别为2610 mg/L和3090 mg/L,地下水以TDS小于400 mg/L的HCO3—Na型水为主;地热水富集Br-,地下水中Br-未检测,表明盐田地热水存在现代海水或者海相沉积层古海水补给。根据盐田地热田H01和H02地热水Cl-混合模型计算,地热水H01海水混入比为9.13%,H02海水混入比为10.76%,显示H01在出露于第四系地层后混入了更多的地下水。综合分析认为,海水是盐田地热水的重要补给资源,地热水化学组分受海水混合作用影响明显,深层热水上升过程中存在两次或者多次地下水或者海水混入从而形成浅层热储,采用SiO2地热温标和多矿物平衡法估算的浅层热储温度在89~121°C之间。

福建省厦门市水热型地热系统地球化学特征及成因模式

福建省厦门市滨海地区海水补给型地热系统虽然补给资源量很大,但是存在水质咸化、温度较低、地热水开采可能诱发海水入侵等问题,因此,查明该区地热资源成因模式,对地热资源合理开发、利用及保护具有重要意义。通过在厦门市地热田采集地热水、地下水及地表水样品,运用水化学及环境同位素分析方法,研究地热水化学特征及地热资源的成因机制。结果表明:厦门市山区及山前地带地热水的补给来源主要是山区降雨入渗,以TDS较低的HCO_(3)·SO_(4)-Ca·Na型水为主;沿海地区地热水的补给来源主要是不同程度的海水混入,以TDS较高的Cl^(-)Na型水为主。根据Cl^(-)混合模型特征,发现该区13处地热田中有10处地热田受到海水混入补给,其中浦边地热水的海水混入比达73.20%。地热水由低山区沿NW向断裂向深部运移,与区域NE向深大控热断裂交汇,接受深部传导热量后形成深部热储层,温度为185~225℃;地热水沿断裂带上升过程中有海水或地下冷水混入,混入后的浅层热储温度为80~139℃。综合分析认为,厦门沿海地区海水是地热水的重要补给资源,地热水化学组分受海水混合作用影响明显,存在两次或多次地下冷水或海水的混入,降低了地下热储温度。

银川盆地热储层温度估算

热储层的温度对地热资源开发利用及资源量的评价至关重要。银川盆地热储层埋藏较深,通过勘察技术获取热储层温度及相关参数的成本较高。为了进一步揭示银川盆地热储层特征,在银川盆地内有条件采集地热水样品的7眼地热井中进行样品采集,分析了地热水样品的水化学特征,实测了地热井井口的温度,采用多矿物平衡法及地热温标法对7眼地热井热储层的温度进行估算,并将估算结果与井口温度进行对比。结果表明,银川盆地地热水平均总溶解性固体物质(TDS)为9116.43 mg/L,地热水以高矿化度地热水为主。银川盆地热储层温度估算结果及实测井口温度显示,银川盆地北部热储层温度高于中部热储层温度。对于新近系热储层,Na-K地热温标使用效果最好,估算的热储层温度约为52.6℃;对于奥陶系热储层,玉髓地热温标的使用效果最好,可对热储层温度进行精确的估算,估算的热储层温度约为39.1℃。

南秦岭柞水−山阳矿集区金盆梁金矿床载金硫化物矿物学特征及成矿指示

金盆梁金矿床位于南秦岭柞水−山阳金多金属矿集区北部,矿体呈近东西向赋存于上泥盆统桐峪寺组的沉积建造中,受左行韧性断层控制。关于矿石矿物学与金成矿过程尚缺乏系统的认识。基于岩矿相学鉴定、背散射电子图像(BSE)、能谱(EDS)及电子探针分析(EPMA)等方法,查明矿石组构与载金硫化物毒砂、黄铁矿、辉锑矿及白铁矿的矿物学特征,探讨金的赋存状态与成矿物理化学条件,初步厘定矿床成因类型。结果显示,热液成矿期的金矿化以微细浸染型为主,可划分为黄铁矿−毒砂−硅化(Ⅰ)、石英−辉锑矿−白铁矿±锑氧化物(Ⅱ)及方解石−石英(Ⅲ)3个阶段。不同载金硫化物的“不可见金”赋存状态差异显著,由毒砂的晶格金Au+,到早世代黄铁矿(Py-1)的晶格金Au+−纳米金Au0,至晚世代黄铁矿(Py-2)和白铁矿的纳米金Au0。金属矿物组合由毒砂−黄铁矿至辉锑矿−白铁矿,成矿流体由较高温的相对自然金不饱和状态,逐渐演化为相对低温的自然金饱和状态。金盆梁金矿床形成于较高硫逸度的中高温、中浅成环境,属于卡林型金矿床。