Characteristic of Chocolate Candy Produced from Fermented Cocoa Bean with Lactobacillus plantarum HL-15 Starter Culture for Inhibition Growth of Mycotoxin-Producing Fungi

Chocolate candy is a snack product that is liked by many people.The presence of mycotoxin producing fungi is a problem in chocolate product.The objective of this research was to observe the characteristic of chocolate candy which is produced from fermented cocoa bean with Lactobacillus plantarum HL-15 starter culture.The cocoa bean(47.5 kg)is fermented by adding L.plantarum HL-15 culture about 500 mL(10^10 CFU/mL)in the new and old fermentation box and in another new and old fermentation box without adding culture.Chocolate candy processing is done based on standard processing of chocolate candy.The results showed that the addition of L.plantarum HL-15 culture in cocoa bean fermentation and use of the new fermentation box give lower fungi concentration on chocolate candy,reducing 1 log cycle from 1.7×10^3 to<10^2 colony/g,while the addition of L.plantarum HL-15 culture in the old fermentation box is not effect.The average aw value of chocolate candy is 0.64 and pH value is 6.7.Fat content of chocolate candy is about 44.9%-46.2%.

Morphological Characterization of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Associated with the Rhizosphere According to the Age of Xanthosoma sagittifolium L. Schott Plants in the Field

The objective of this work was to carry out a morphological characterization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the rhizosphere of Xanthosoma sagittifolium L. Schott plants. The plant material used was the white and red cultivars of X. sagittifolium, belonging to age intervals of 3 - 6, 6 - 9, and 9 - 12 months. Three harvest sites were chosen in the Central Region of Cameroon. In each site, soil from the rhizosphere and plant roots was collected in a randomized manner. In the field, the agronomic parameters were evaluated. The physicochemical characteristics of the soils, the mycorrhization index, and the morphological characterization of the mycorrhizal types of each site were carried out. The results obtained show that the agronomic growth parameters varied significantly using the Student Newman and Keuls Test depending on the harvest sites. The soils’ pH in all sites was acidic and ranged between 4.6 and 5.8. The Nkometou site has a loamy texture while the Olembe and Soa sites have loam-clay-sandy and loam-clay textures respectively. The highest mycorrhization frequencies appeared at the Nkometou site, with 75 and 87.33% of the white and red cultivars plant roots at 6 - 9 and 3 - 6 months. The relative abundance of AMF arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores in the rhizosphere of X. sagittifolium plants varied with age and cultivar. There were 673 spores between 9 - 12 months in Nkometou in the red cultivar. Six AMF genera were identified in all the different soils collected: Acaulospora sp., Funneliformis sp., Gigaspora sp., Glomus sp., Scutellospora sp., and Septoglomus sp. The genus Glomus sp. was the most present at all age intervals in both cultivars.

Soil Physico-Chemical Properties and Different Altitudes Affect Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Abundance and Colonization in Cacao Plantations of Cameroon

This study aims to investigate the abundance of AMF according to soil properties and altitudes in different cacao plantations of Cameroon. Physico-chemical analyses were made on soil samples collected from three agro-ecological zones. Soil samples were also used to evaluate directly the AMF abundance following the various altitudes and after trapping by sorghum plant. The results showed that soil properties, AMF spore abundances and colonization fluctuated significantly at different altitudes. The most represented texture was sandy loam. The bimodal zone presented a homogeneous texture (sandy loam) in all its localities. Cacao soil chemical characteristics showed that, the highest nitrogen rate (0.47%;p 0.05, Scott-Knott test) was recorded at Melong in a monomodal zone while Tonga in the Western highlands displayed the lowest rate (0.13%). Soil P concentration was significantly high in monomodal zones (Mbanga and Melong). Soil pH level indicated that the soil from Tonga in the Western highlands was neutral (pH = 6.67), and soils of other localities under study were acidic with the lowest (4.75) pH level recorded at Melong in a monomodal zone. In soil samples, the highest spore density (1.03 spores/g soil) was observed at Ntui in Bimodal zone, while the lowest spore density (0.26 spores/g soil) was observed at Bafang in the Western highlands. Root colonization showed that the sample from Bokito in a bimodal zone displayed the best frequency of mycorrhization (86.11%) while the sample from Bafang in the Western highlands recorded the lowest (27.11%). The PCA analysis highlighted that available phosphorus, pH and altitude all strongly correlated with AMF root colonization ability and can be used as a predictor of AMF colonization ability in cacao rhizosphere.

Reclassification and Nomenclature of Common Pathogenic Fungi

The accurate identification of pathogenic fungi is crucial for diagnosing and treating fungal infections. Recent advancements in molecular biotechnology, phylogenetic analysis, and the requirements of the Melbourne Code have led to changes in the classification and naming of fungi. These changes have caused significant confusion for medical laboratories and clinical personnel. This article summarizes the classification and new names of common pathogenic fungi to enhance fungi identification skills and provide accurate information for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

Secondary Metabolites of Entomopathogenic Fungi, Biological Alternative for the Control of Agricultural Pests and Disease: Present and Perspectives

The use of entomopathogenic fungi (EF) in recent years has been highly effective against the different orders of insects considered pests of agricultural importance and their conidia have been commonly applied, but it has been reported that these are sensitive to the environmental conditions. For this reason, biopesticides products have been formulated based on secondary metabolites, recently. These biomolecules participate as biological control agent, such as: cyclic depsipeptides, amino acids, polyketides, polyphenols and terpenoids, affecting their morphology, life cycle and insect behavior. The use of secondary metabolites of entomopathogenic fungi opens the possibility of application in a more efficient way for the control of agricultural pests in a compatible with the environment and human health;therefore, it is important to know, analyzing the type of molecules, their effects, and their different methods of application.

Fungi Associated with Sand and Plants from Marine Coastlines: Potential Relevance for Human Health

The fungal community associated with beach sand and plants located along marine coasts are an under-studied area of research despite its potential relevance to human health. In this study, we isolated and identified the cultivable mycobiota associated with sand and plants collected along the coast of Gran Canaria (Spain) using culture-dependent and -independent methods. Clinically relevant species belonging to Cryptococcus spp. and related genera such as Naganishia and Papilotrema were isolated and identified from shoreline plants. Moreover, Candida tropicalis was isolated from beach sand, and Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus terreus strains were associated with both types of samples (i.e., plants and beach sand). We conclude that beach sand and shoreline plants are potential reservoirs of fungi of high clinical interest. We recommend including beach sand and plants from the environment when assessing the quality of marine coastal systems. Our results open a framework for studying the natural marine environment and its role in the epidemiology of infectious diseases in order to more accurately manage public health.

Resistance of Microbial Community of Artemisia annua L.to Pathogenic Fungi

[Objectives]This paper was to figure out whether the dominant bacterial community has the role and effect of bacterial community and its defense mechanism against potential pathogenic fungi in Artemisia annua,and thus establish a systematic model of bacteria-fungus-plant.[Methods]Fifty-eight strains of bacteria and one strain of pathogenic fungi,Globisporangium ultimatum,were used for the experiments.These 58 bacterial strains were assembled into a bacterial community,and the bacteria with abundance in the top 1%were reassembled into a dominant bacterial community as measured by 16S rDNA.[Results]The growth of A.annua seedlings inoculated with bacterial communities and pathogenic fungi or dominant bacterial communities and pathogenic fungi was significantly better than that of A.annua seedlings inoculated with pathogenic fungi during in vitro confrontation,which was evident in both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant assays.[Conclusions]The results suggest that the dominant bacterial community has a crucial role as a representative core microbial community of synthetic bacterial community,which can protect plants by interfering with the growth of phytopathogenic fungi mediated by chemical signals,and can be used as the main synthetic community of biocides to achieve the effect of biocontrol.

Root-associated endophytic fungi modulate endogenous auxin and cytokinin levels to improve plant biomass and root morphology of trifoliate orange

Root-associated endophytic fungi like Serendipita indica and arbuscular mycorrhizal(AM) fungi can improve plant growth and root construction, but the potential mechanism is unclear. In this study, Funneliformis mosseae(an AM fungus) and S. indica, singly or in combination were inoculated into trifoliate orange(Poncirus trifoliata) seedlings, to assess changes in biomass and root morphological traits, coupled with auxins and cytokinins concentrations in leaves and roots and the expression of auxin synthesis and transporter protein genes. After 20 weeks of inoculation with these fungi, shoot and root biomass, root total length, taproot length, average diameter, surface area, volume, and the number of lateral roots in 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-order were improved, and S. indica showed a relatively greater effect than F. mosseae and dual inoculation. Endophytic fungal inoculation also significantly increased the concentration of indoleacetic acid, indole butyric acid, trans-zeatin,dihydrozeatin, and isopentenyl adenine in leaves and roots, whilst F. mosseae and S. indica exhibited relatively greater effects on leaves and roots, respectively. Correlation analysis revealed that both biomass and root morphological traits(except root projected area) were significantly positively associated with endogenous auxins and cytokinins. In addition, the inoculated plants recorded comparatively higher expression levels of indoleacetic acid synthesis genes(PtTAA1, PtTAR2, PtYUC3, PtYUC4, PtYUC6, and PtYUC8) and indoleacetic acid transporter protein genes(PtAUX1, PtLAX1, PtLAX2, PtLAX3, PtPIN1, PtPIN3, PtPIN4, PtABCB1, and PtABCB19) than the non-inoculated plants, among which F. mosseae and S. indica showed better effects in leaves and roots, respectively. These results suggest that root-associated endophytic fungi improved plant growth and root architecture, which were associated with changes in endogenous auxins and cytokinins.

Differential aluminum tolerance and absorption characteristics in Pinus massoniana seedlings colonized with ectomycorrhizal fungi of Lactarius deliciosus and Pisolithus tinctorius

Plant tolerance to aluminum(Al)toxicity can be enhanced by an ectomycorrhizal(ECM)fungus through biological filtering or physical blockage.To understand the roles of ECM colonization in Al absorption with regard to Al tolerance,Pinus massoniana seedlings were inoculated with either Lactarius deliciosus(L.:Fr.)Gray isolate 2 or Pisolithus tinctorius(Pers.)Coker et Couch isolate 715 and cultivated in an acid yellow soil with or without 1.0 mM Al^(3+)irrigation for 10 weeks.Biomass production,Al bioaccumulation and transport in seedlings colonized by the two ECM fungi were compared,and the three absorption kinetics(pseudo-first order,pseudo-second order and intraparticle diffusion)models used to evaluate variances in root Al^(3+)absorption capacity.Results show that both fungi increased aboveground biomass and Al tolerance of P.massoniana seedlings,but L.deliciosus 2 was more effective than P.tinctorius 715.Lower Al absorption capacity,fewer available active sites and decreased affinity and boundary layer thickness for Al^(3+),and higher Al accumulation and translocation contributed to the increased Al tolerance in the ECM-inoculated seedlings.These results advance our understanding of the mechanisms and strategies in plant Alto lerance conferred by ECM fungi and show that inoculation with L.deliciosus will better enhance Al tolerance in P.massoniana seedlings used for forest plantation and ecosystem restoration in acidic soils,particularly in Southwest China and similar soils worldwide.

Effects of Different Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Physiology of Viola prionantha under Salt Stress

Arbuscular mycorrhizal(AM)fungi distribute widely in natural habits and play a variety of ecological functions.In order to test the physiological response to salt stress mediated by different AM fungi,Viola prionantha was selected as the host,the dominant AM fungus in the rhizosphere of V.philippica growing in Songnen saline-alkali grassland,Rhizophagus irregularis,and their mixtures were used as inoculants,and NaCl stress was applied after the roots were colonized.The results showed that V.philippica could be colonized by AM fungi in the field and the colonization rate ranged from 73.33%to 96.67%,and Claroideoglomus etunicatum was identified as the dominant AM fungi species in the rhizosphere of V.philippica by morphology combined with sequencing for AM fungal AML1/AML2 target.Inoculation with both the species resulted in the formation of mycorrhizal symbiosis(the colonization rate was more than 70%)and AM fungi significantly enhanced plants’tolerance to salt stress of varying magnitude.Higher activity of antioxidant enzymes and augmented levels of proline and other osmoregulators were observed in AM plants.The content of MDA in CK was higher than that in the inoculations with the stress of 100,200,and 250 mM.All indices except soluble protein content and MDA content were significantly correlated with AM fungal colonization indices.The analysis for different AM fungal effects showed that the mixtures and R.irregularis worked even better than C.etunicatum.These results will provide theoretical support for the exploration and screening of salt-tolerant AM fungi species and also for the application of AM-ornamental plants in saline-alkali urban greening.

Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Associated with Six Rice Cultivars in Italian Agricultural Ecosystem Managed with Alternate Wetting and Drying

Alternate wetting and drying(AWD)system,in which water has been reduced by approximately 35%with an increased occurrence of beneficial arbuscular mycorrhizal(AM)symbiosis and no negative impact on rice yield,was proposed to utilize water and nutrients more sustainable.In this study,we selected six rice cultivars(Centauro,Loto,Selenio,Vialone nano,JSendra and Puntal)grown under AWD conditions,and investigated their responsiveness to AM colonization and how they select diverse AM taxa.In order to investigate root-associated AM fungus communities,molecular cloning-Sanger sequencing on small subunit rDNA data were obtained from five out of the six rice cultivars and compared with Next Generation Sequencing(NGS)data,which were previously obtained in Vialone nano.The results showed that all the cultivars were responsive to AM colonization with the development of AM symbiotic structures,even if with differences in the colonization and arbuscule abundance in the root systems.We identified 16 virtual taxa(VT)in the soil compartment and 7 VT in the root apparatus.We emphasized that the NGS analysis gives additional value to the results thanks to a more in-depth reading of the less represented AM fungus taxa.

Morphological and Molecular Identification of Fungi Associated with Sesame Diseased Plants of the Three Agroclimatic Zones of Burkina Faso

Sesame is Burkina Faso’s second essential agricultural export after cotton. It’s consequently a supply of income for producers and foreign exchange for the country. However, sesame production is characterized by low average yields of about 538 kg·ha-1 at the farmer’s field as compared to the potential yield of the improved varieties (1500 - 2000 kg·ha-1). Fungal diseases are some of the major constraints to sesame production in Burkina Faso. The present study contributes to the development of means to control pathogenic fungi of this crop, which are responsible for significant losses. The objective is to identify the fungi associated with diseased sesame plant samples. To this end, 149 samples of diseased sesame plants were collected from different production sites located in three agro-climatic zones of the country. The analysis of the samples according to the blotting paper method, based on the morphological characteristics of the fungi, allowed the identification of 18 genera with prevalence rates from 2.68% to 97.98%. The most frequently identified genera were Macrophomina (97.98%), Cercospora (86.57%), Fusarium (85.23%), Phoma (62.41%) and Colletotrichum (61.07%). The results also showed a variable distribution of fungi according to the agro-climatic zone with the predominance of Macrophomina in all three zones. Molecular identification by DNA sequencing of 120 isolates belonging to the different fungi detected allowed the identification of 25 species of which the most representative were Macrophomina phaseolina, Cercospora sesami, Corynespora cassiicola, Alternaria simsimi, Alternaria porri, Fusarium oxysporum, F. fujikuroi, F. equiseti, Colletotrichum capsici, and C. gloesporiodes. The present study showed that diseased sesame plants collected from different production sites in Burkina Faso housed several species of fungi. The fungi presence in diseased plants indicates the need to inform and raise the stakeholders’ awareness about the phytosanitary problems of sesame, but also to develop effective and appropriate control methods against these crop pathogens in Burkina Faso.

Isolation and Identification of Fungi That Cause Hair Loss (Alopecia)

Due to the crowded number of female students in a very narrow place, the fact that the college is for females only, and the fact that some of the female students live in the internal sections of the student residence, as well as the crowded number there, and as a result of the presence of the head covering or what is known as the Islamic veil on the head, which covers the hair of the head, which provides a suitable hot humid atmosphere 100% of fungal growth in the scalp of female students. Therefore, it is necessary to know the widespread fungal species that contaminate the scalp. In other research, we learn about the antifungals that should be used to reduce fungal infections in college employees. The study was carried out to identify the presence and spread of fungi that cause hair loss. The study was conducted on some students of the College of Education for Girls/University of Shatra for the period from 1/11/2021 to 1/12/2021, where 100 hundred hair samples were collected from (the scalp) from different ages in different educational stages, as random samples were taken after asking the student whether she suffers from hair loss or not, and studying the presence and spread of fungi in terms of density and type, after transferring them to the microbiology laboratory-College of Education for Girls using sterile sample collection bags. The current results showed that the fungal species E. flocculosum is the most common among them, followed by the fungal species C. carrionii, then the rest of the genera are as follows: E. flocculosum, Basisdioplus, Aspergillus terreud Hormderndrum Rhodotorula, Bipolaris, Aspergillus, Phoma, Rhizopus, Blastomyces, Microsporum, Sporothrix, Exophiala jeanselmei, Neoscytalidium Aeremonium Cladophialophora carrionii, Paecilomyces, Exophiala dermatitidis, Geotrichum, Volvariella, Rhizomucor, Saksmaea vassiformis, Candida albicans, Chrysosporium, Dimiatum.

Inventory and Management of Fungi Associated with Banana Plant through the Use of Allium ampeloprasum and Cymbopogon citratus Extracts

Despite the nutritional, economic and medicinal values of banana plant, independent of the region and production system is confronted with some diseases such as the fungi disease. These fungal diseases are responsible for the low yields. The objective of this study was to improve the sanitary state of banana plant. To achieve this objective, fungi associated with banana leaves were isolated on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) culture medium and their identification was done on the basis of morphological and microscopic characteristics using reference documents. Antifungal activity of Allium ampeloprasum and Cymbopogon citratus extracts were evaluated in vitro on agar medium on the development of Pseudocercospora fijiensis, P. musicola and Pestalopsis sp. The results showed that banana plant harbours a diversity of fungal species, the most frequent being P. fijiensis (51.58%), Pestalopsis sp. (15.47%) and P. musicola (12.03%). Aqueous extracts of C. citratus at the concentration of 15 mg/ml, inhibited 100% of the radial growth of P. fijiensis and Pestalopsis sp with a fungitoxic activity. Similarly, ethanolic extract A. ampeloprasum inhibited at 100% the radial growth of Pestalopsis sp. This antifungal activity was fungistatic. These results suggest that the aqueous and ethanol extracts of the tested plants could be used as alternatives to chemical products in the fight against banana diseases especially Sigatoka. Hence further studies need to be undertaken to isolate the active compounds from these extracts with fungicidal potential.

Morphological Identification of the Main Fungi Associated with Sesame in Burkina Faso

Several fungal species are responsible for diseases that damage sesame crop and cause production losses. These seed-borne fungi cause serious damage by reducing seed germination. To identify the fungi associated with sesame seeds in Burkina Faso, 72 sesame seed samples were collected from 24 localities in the main production areas (Sudanian zone, Sudano-Sahelian zone, Sahelian zone). These samples were submitted for seed health analysis using the blotting paper incubation method. The results obtained revealed that the seed samples were contaminated by various fungi, the main ones being: Fusarium spp. Link: Fr. infecting 97.22% of the samples, Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. (90.28%), Alternaria sesamicola E. Kawamura (83.33%), Curvularia lunata (Wakker) Boedijn (76.39%), Cercospora sesami A. Zimmerm. (73.61%), Phoma sorghina Boerema, Dorenbosch, & Van Kesteren (73.61%), Aspergillus flavus Link: Fr. (69.44%), Cladosporium sphaerospermum Penz. (56.94%), Rhizopus sp. Ehrenb. (40.28%) and A. niger Tiegh. (36.11%). In each seed sample, 0.25% to 94% of the seeds host one or more fungal species. Regarding the climatic zones, the results revealed that A. sesamicola and A. flavus were more represented in the Sudanian zone than in the Sudano-Sahelian and Sahelian zones;while P. sorghina, and C. sphaerospermum were more encountered in the Sahelian zone than in the other two zones. This study showed that the majority of sesame seeds produced and used by farmers in Burkina Faso host one or more species of fungi at high levels.

Diversity of soil bacteria and fungi communities in artificial forests of the sandy-hilly region of Northwest China

Soil erosion is a serious issue in the sandy-hilly region of Shanxi Province,Northwest China.There has been gradual improvement due to vegetation restoration,but soil microbial community characteristics in different vegetation plantation types have not been widely investigated.To address this,we analyzed soil bacterial and fungal community structures,diversity,and microbial and soil environmental factors in Caragana korshinskii Kom.,Populus tomentosa Carr.,Populus simonii Carr.,Salix matsudana Koidz,and Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.forests.There were no significant differences in the dominant bacterial community compositions among the five forest types.The alpha diversity of the bacteria and fungi communities showed that ACE(abundance-based coverage estimator),Chao1,and Shannon indices in C.korshinskii forest were significantly higher than those in the other four forest types(P<0.05).Soil organic matter,total nitrogen,and urease had a greater impact on bacterial community composition,while total nitrogen,β-glucosidase,and urease had a greater impact on fungal community composition.The relative abundance of beneficial and pathogenic microorganisms was similar across all forest types.Based on microbial community composition,diversity,and soil fertility,we ranked the plantations from most to least suitable as follows:C.korshinskii,S.matsudana,P.tabulaeformis,P.tomentosa,and P.simonii.

Post-Harvest Fungi Associated with Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) Seeds Produced in Burkina Faso

Cowpea is a very popular foodstuff among people in sub-Saharan Africa. In Burkina Faso, it is the main food legume, especially in rural areas. Its production is facing difficulties including post-harvest losses caused by fungi. Therefore, the objective of this study was to isolate and identify fungal strains associated with cowpea seeds produced in Burkina Faso. Thus, a total of 108 seed samples were collected in the three agro-ecological zones of Burkina Faso. The sanitary analysis of the seeds was carried out using the direct contact method. The isolation and purification of the isolates were performed on Potato Dextrose Agar medium while their identification was done through macroscopic and microscopic phenotypical characterization using different culture media (Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), Malt Extract Agar (MEA) and Czapeck Dox Agar (CZA)) and different identification keys. A total of 10 fungal species were isolated, with predominance of Aspergillus flavus, Aspegillus niger, Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporium and Rhizopus sp. whose infection rates were 70.8% to 100% of seed samples. In addition to being present in all three zones, the infection rates of Aspergillus flavus (56.55%), Aspergillus niger (20.35%) and Rhizopus (32.80%) were higher in the Sahelian zone. In the Sudano-Sahelian zone, Macrophomina (50.66%) and Fusarium (18.88%) presented the highest infection rates, while Penicillium sp. showed the highest infection rate (2.84%) in the Sudanian zone. This finding demonstrated the necessity to improve post-harvest and conservation techniques of cowpea to limit crop losses and preserve the sanitary quality of this important foodstuff.

Development Countermeasures of County-level Edible Fungi Industry in Hebei Province from the Perspective of Rural Revitalization

In recent years,the edible fungi industry in Hebei Province has developed rapidly,with gradually increased cultivation scale and production output,and has become the pillar industry of the province,playing a certain role in promoting the development of rural economy and rural revitalization.Based on the in-depth analysis of the development status,future development direction and current constraints of the edible fungi industry in each typical county of Hebei Province in recent years,the paper puts forward corresponding development countermeasures,which has certain reference value for the county-level edible fungi industry of Hebei Province to promote rural revitalization.

食用菌多糖结构与功能研究进展

食用菌具有较高的营养价值和功能价值,多糖作为食用菌最主要的活性成分之一,不仅能够为机体供给能量,而且可以参与生物合成反应及细胞的各项生命活动。大多数食用菌多糖是α-葡聚糖、β-葡聚糖、混合α,β-葡聚糖,以及由果糖、半乳糖、甘露糖等多种单糖组成的杂多糖,其中,β-葡聚糖是食用菌中最具生物活性的多糖。食用菌多糖具有多种生物活性。为了为食用菌多糖在功能性食品中的应用提供理论基础,综述了食用菌多糖的结构及其抗氧化、抗衰老、调节免疫、抗炎、抗肿瘤、降血糖、降血脂、抗病毒、抗辐射、抗突变、抑菌、抗疲劳、抗凝血等方面的功能及机理,并对其进行了展望。

Mycorrhizal Fungi Spore Abundance in Old-Growth Forest Soil

Soil samples were collected from the base of Aplectrum hymale individuals to assess mycorrhizal spores abundance. The hypothesis that mycorrhizal spore abundance would increase with proximity to the plant was not supported;however, spores increased significantly with distance from the Aplectrum hymale plants up to one meter.