Exotic parrots breeding in urban tree cavities: nesting requirements, geographic distribution, and potential impacts on cavity nesting birds in southeast Florida

Background:Exotic parrots have established breeding populations in southeast Florida,including several species that nest in tree cavities.We aimed to determine the species identity,nest site requirements,relative nest abundance,geographic distribution,and interactions of parrots with native cavity-nesting bird species.Methods:We searched Miami-Dade County,Florida,and nearby areas for natural cavities and holes excavated by woodpeckers,recording attributes of potential nest trees.We inspected all cavities with an elevated video inspection system to determine occupancy by parrots or other birds.We mapped nearly 4000 citizen science observations of parrots in our study area corresponding to our study period,and used these to construct range maps,comparing them to our nesting observations.Results:Not all parrots reported or observed in our study area were actively breeding.Some parrots were observed at tree cavities,which previous studies have suggested is evidence of reproduction,but our inspections with an elevated video inspection system suggest they never initiated nesting attempts.Several parrot species did successfully nest in tree cavities,Red-masked Parakeets(Psittacara erythrogenys)and Orange-winged Parrots(Amazona amazonica)being the most common(n=7 and 6 nests,respectively).These two parrots had similar nesting requirements,but Orange-winged Parrots use nests with larger entrance holes,which they often enlarge.Geographic analysis of nests combined with citizen science data indicate that parrots are limited to developed areas.The most common parrots were less abundant cavity nesters than the native birds which persist in Miami’s urban areas,and far less abundant than the invasive European Starling(Sturnus vulgaris).Conclusions:Exotic parrots breeding elsewhere in the world have harmed native cavity-nesting birds through interference competition,but competitive interference in southeast Florida is minimized by the urban affinities of parrots in this region.The relative abundance and geographic distribution suggest that these parrots are unlikely to invade adjacent wilderness areas.

A high incidence of non-cavity nesting in an introduced population of House Sparrows suggests that the species should not be constrained by cavity-nest site availability

Background: The House Sparrow(Passer domesticus) has undergone dramatic population declines in many parts of Europe.It has been widely hypothesised that a lack of cavity nest sites has contributed to this decline.However the idea of the House Sparrow being nest site limited is somewhat incompatible with the long history of nest site plasticity in the species.Methods: The nest-site selection in a population of non-native House Sparrows introduced to Australia from Europe just over 150 years ago was characterised.The prevalence of non-cavity nesting was quantified,and nest-site selection in terms of landscape and nesting structure were described.Results: Flexible nesting behaviors were reported over a range of different landscapes and a surprisingly high rate of nesting in vegetation(43%) was documented.Most nests found in vegetation were not in cavities,but were woven into the foliage and supported by branches and stems.Conclusion: The high rate of vegetation nesting indicates that in this introduced population,the House Sparrow is unlikely to be constrained by cavity-nest site availability.The high degree of nest site plasticity in the Australian population may suggest that European House Sparrows have the potential to shift away from their proclivity for cavity nests.Future work in Europe should examine the incidence of non-cavity nesting in House Sparrows more closely,and perhaps reconsider the idea that House Sparrows are nest-site constrained.