Roles of Community Pharmacists in Screening and Disseminating of Information about Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Risks: Implications for Drug Safety Assessment

Background: The increasing use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) both on prescription and over the counter raises a major global health concern because of the risks associated with their use if no proper guidance is given by the health care provider. This study assessed the roles of community pharmacists in screening and disseminating information about the risks associated with NSAID use in Zambia. Methodology: This was a national cross-sectional study in which a structured self-administered questionnaire was administered to 245 registered community pharmacists in Zambia. Stata/BE, version 15.1 (Stata Corporation, College Station, Texas, USA) and multivariate logistic regression model was used to determine factors associated with information dissemination about ADRs of NS-NSAIDs. Results: 231 of the 245 distributed questionnaires were returned giving a response rate of 94.3%. All (100%) participating community pharmacists claimed to have practiced dispensing NSAIDs. However, only 26 (11.0%) and 71 (30.8%) regularly screened for risk factor of selective COX-2 NSAIDS (SC2-NSAIDS) and non-selective NSAIDS (NS-NSAIDs) respectively. Information dissemination on adverse drug reactions (ADRs) of SC2-NSAIDS was regularly provided by only 22 (9.5%) of pharmacists while that of NS-NSAIDs was regularly provided by 49 (21.2%). In the multivariate logistic regression model, being the owner of a pharmacy (AOR: 5.4, CI: 1.84 - 16.4) was significantly associated with information dissemination about ADRs of NS-NSAIDs while an hour increase in the working hours per day (AOR: 0.9, CI: 0.64 - 0.95) was associated with less likelihood of information dissemination. Conclusion: Pharmacists working in community pharmacies in Zambia did not regularly screen and disseminate information about the risks associated with NSAID use. Therefore, pharmacists should be able to screen and monitor patients at risk and be aware of the majority of risk factors while dispensing NSAIDs to minimize the associated complications.

Helicobacter pylori-negative,non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug:Negative idiopathic ulcers in Asia

Since the discovery of Helicobacter pylori(H.pylori)infection in the stomach,the bacteria infection and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NSAIDs)use had been considered to be the 2 main causes of peptic ulcers.However,there have been recent reports of an increase in the proportion of peptic ulcers without these known risk factors;these are termed idiopathic peptic ulcers.Such trend was firstly indicated in 1990s from some reports in North America.In Asia,numerous studies reported that idiopathic ulcers accounted for a small percentage of all ulcers in the 1990s,but in the2000s,multiple studies reported that the proportion of idiopathic ulcers had reached 10%-30%,indicating that the incidence of idiopathic ulcers in Asia has also been rising in recent years.While a decline in H.pylori infection rates of general population in Asia is seen as the main reason for the increased incidence of idiopathic ulcers,it is also possible that the absolute number of idiopathic ulcer cases has increased.Advanced age,serious systemic complication,and psychological stress are considered to be the potential risk factors for idiopathic ulcers.Management of idiopathic ulcers is challenging,at present,because there is no effective preventative measure against recurrence in contrast with cases of H.pylori-positive ulcers and NSAIDs-induced ulcers.As it is expected that H.pylori infection rates in Asia will decline further in the future,measures to treat idiopathic ulcers will also likely become more important.

Systematic review and meta-analysis on the prophylactic role of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to prevent post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography pancreatitis

AIM: To critically appraise the published randomized, controlled trials on the prophylactic effectiveness of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NSAIDs), in reducing the risk of post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography(ERCP) pancreatitis. METHODS: A systematic literature search(MEDLINE, Embase and the Cochrane Library, from inception of the databases until May 2015) was conducted to identify randomized, clinical trials investigating the role of NSAIDs in reducing the risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis. Random effects model of the meta-analysis was carried out, and results were presented as odds ratios(OR) with corresponding 95%CI.RESULTS: Thirteen randomized controlled trials on 3378 patients were included in the final meta-analysis. There were 1718 patients in the NSAIDs group and 1660 patients in non-NSAIDs group undergoing ERCP. The use of NSAIDs(through rectal route or intramuscular route) was associated with the reduced risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis [OR, 0.52(0.38-0.72), P = 0.0001]. The use of pre-procedure NSAIDs was effective in reducing approximately 48% incidence of post-ERCP pancreatitis, number needed to treat were 16 with absolute risk reduction of 0.05. But the risk of post-ERCP pancreattis was reduced by 55% if NSAIDs were administered after procedure. Similarly, diclofenac was more effective(55%) prophylactic agent compared to indomethacin(41%).CONCLUSION: NSAIDs seem to have clinically proven advantage of reducing the risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis.

Italian survey on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugsand gastrointestinal bleeding in children

AIM: To investigate gastrointestinal complications associated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug(NSAIDs) use in children.METHODS: A retrospective, multicenter study was conducted between January 2005 and January 2013, with the participation of 8 Italian pediatric gastroenterology centers. We collected all the cases of patients who refer to emergency room for suspected gastrointestinal bleeding following NSAIDs consumption, and underwent endoscopic evaluation. Previous medical history, associated risk factors, symptoms and signs at presentation, diagnostic procedures, severity of bleeding and management of gastrointestinal bleeding were collected. In addition, data regarding type of drug used, indication, dose, duration of treatment and prescriber(physician or selfmedication) were examined. RESULTS: Fifty-one patients, including 34 males, were enrolled(median age: 7.8 years). Ibuprofen was the most used NSAID [35/51 patients(68.6%)]. Pain was the most frequent indication for NSAIDs use [29/51 patients(56.9%)]. Seven patients had positive family history of Helicobacter pylori(H. pylori) infection or peptic ulcer, and 12 had associated comorbidities. Twenty-four(47%) out of 51 patients used medication inappropriately. Hematemesis was the most frequent symptom(33.3%). Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy revealed gastric lesions in 32/51(62%) patients, duodenal lesions in 17(33%) and esophageal lesions in 8(15%). In 10/51(19.6%) patients, a diagnosis of H. pylori gastritis was made. Forty-eight(94%) patients underwent medical therapy, with spontaneous bleeding resolution, while in 3/51(6%) patients, an endoscopic hemostasis was needed.CONCLUSION: The data collected in this study confirms that adverse events with the involvement of the gastrointestinal tract secondary to NSAID use are also common in

Does aspirin or non-aspirin non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use prevent colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease?

AIM: To determine whether aspirin or non-aspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NA-NSAIDs) prevent colorectal cancer(CRC) in patients with inflammatory bowel disease(IBD).METHODS: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis. We searched for articles reporting the risk of CRC in patients with IBD related to aspirin or NANSAID use. Pooled odds ratios(OR) and 95%CIs were determined using a random-effects model. Publication bias was assessed using Funnel plots and Egger's test. Heterogeneity was assessed using Cochran's Q and the I2 statistic.RESULTS: Eight studies involving 14917 patients and 3 studies involving 1282 patients provided data on the risk of CRC in patients with IBD taking NA-NSAIDs and aspirin respectively. The pooled OR of developing CRC after exposure to NA-NSAIDs in patients with IBD was 0.80(95%CI: 0.39-1.21) and after exposure to aspirin it was 0.66(95%CI: 0.06-1.39). There was significant heterogeneity(I2 > 50%) between the studies. There was no change in the effect estimates on subgroup a na ly s e s o f t he po pulat io n s t udie d o r w he t he r adjustment or matching was performed.CONCLUSION: There is a lack of high quality evidence on this important clinical topic. From the available evidence NA-NSAID or aspirin use does not appear to be chemopreventative for CRC in patients with IBD.

Mechanisms, prevention and clinical implications of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-enteropathy

This article reviews the latest developments in understanding the pathogenesis, detection and treatment of small intestinal damage and bleeding caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). With improvements in the detection of NSAID-induced damage in the small intestine, it is now clear that this injury and the associated bleeding occurs more frequently than that occurring in the stomach and duodenum, and can also be regarded as more dangerous. However, there are no proven-effective therapies for NSAID-enteropathy, and detection remains a challenge, particularly because of the poor correlation between tissue injury and symptoms. Moreover, recent studies suggest that commonly used drugs for protecting the upper gastrointestinal tract (i.e., proton pump inhibitors) can significantly worsen NSAID-induced damage in the small intestine. The pathogenesis of NSAID-enteropathy is complex, but studies in animal models are shedding light on the key factors that contribute to ulceration and bleeding, and are providing clues to the development of effective therapies and prevention strategies. Novel NSAIDs that do not cause small intestinal damage in animal models offer hope for a solution to this serious adverse effect of one of the most widely used classes of drugs.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs:What is the actual risk of liver damage?

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) constitute a family of drugs, which taken as a group, represents one of the most frequently prescribed around the world. Thus, not surprisingly NSAIDs, along with antiinfectious agents, list on the top for causes of DrugInduced Liver Injury (DILI). The incidence of liver disease induced by NSAIDs reported in clinical studies is fairly uniform ranging from 0.29/100 000 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.17-051] to 9/100 000 (95% CI: 6-15). However, compared with these results, a higher risk of liver-related hospitalizations was reported (3-23 per 100 000 patients). NSAIDs exhibit a broad spectrum of liver damage ranging from asymptomatic, transient, hyper-transaminasemia to fulminant hepatic failure. However, under-reporting of asymptomatic, mild cases, as well as of those with transient liver-tests alteration, in conjunction with reports non-compliant with pharmacovigilance criteria to ascertain DILI and flawed epidemiological studies, jeopardize the chance to ascertain the actual risk of NSAIDs hepatotoxicity. Several NSAIDs, namely bromfenac, ibufenac and benoxaprofen, have been withdrawn from the market due to hepatotoxicity; others like nimesulide were never marketed in some countries and withdrawn in others. Indeed, the contro-versy concerning the actual risk of severe liver disease persists within NSAIDs research. The present work intends (1) to provide a critical analysis of the dissimilar results currently available in the literature concerning the epidemiology of NSAIDS hepatotoxicity; and (2) to review the risk of hepatotoxicity for each one of the most commonly employed compounds of the NSAIDs family, based on past and recently published data.

Impact of discontinuing non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs on long-term recurrence in colonic diverticular bleeding

AIM: To determine the effect of discontinuing nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs(NSAIDs) on recurrence in long-term follow-up patients with colonic diverticular bleeding(CDB).METHODS: A cohort of 132 patients hospitalized for CDB examined by colonoscopy was prospectively enrolled. Comorbidities, lifestyle, and medications(NSAIDs, low-dose aspirin, antiplatelet agents, anticoagulants, acetaminophen, and corticosteroids) were assessed. After discharge, patients were requested to visit the hospital on scheduled days during the followup period. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to estimate recurrence.RESULTS: Median follow-up was 15 mo. The probability of recurrence at 1, 6, 12, and 24 mo was 3.1%, 19%, 27%, and 38%, respectively. Of the 41 NSAID users on admission, 26(63%) discontinued NSAID use at discharge. Many of the patients who could discontinue NSAIDs were intermittent users, and could be switched to alternative therapies, such as acetaminophen or an antiinflammatory analgesic plaster. The probability of recurrence at 12 mo was 9.4% in discontinuing NSAID users compared with 77% in continuing users(P < 0.01, log-rank test). The hazard ratio for recurrence in the discontinuing NSAIDs users was 0.06 after adjusting for age > 70 years, right-sided diverticula, history of hypertension, and hemodialysis. No patients developed cerebrocardiovascular events during follow-up.CONCLUSION: There is a substantial recurrence rate after discharge among patients hospitalized for diverticular bleeding. Discontinuation of NSAIDs is an effective preventive measure against recurrence. This study provides new information on risk reduction strategies for diverticular bleeding.

Impact of topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in prevention of macular edema following cataract surgery in diabetic patients

AIM： To evaluate the efficacy of prophylactic administration of topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs（NSAIDs） on macular edema following cataract surgery in diabetic patients, and to compare between types of NSAIDs（ketorolac tromethamine 0.4% and nepafenac 0.1%）. METHODS： Group 1（control） received artificial tears substitute as a placebo group, group 2（nepafenac） received topical nepafenac 0.1%, and group 3（ketorolac） received topical ketorolac tromethamine 0.4%. Patients were examined postoperatively after completing one week, one month, two months and three months＇ intervals for evaluating cystoid macular edema（CME） development. The main study outcomes were achieving the best corrected visual acuity（BCVA） and change in the central macular thickness（CMT） measured with optical coherence topography（OCT）.RESULTS： Eighty eyes of 76 patients were included in this study. BCVA showed a statistically significant difference at the third month postoperative follow up between the control group and the NSAIDs groups（P=0.04）. There was an increase in the CMT in all cases starting from postoperative first week until third month. CMT showed a statistically significant difference between control group and NSAIDs groups from postoperative first month until third month（P=0.008, 0.027, 0.004）. There was no statistically significant difference between nepafenac and ketorolac groups in BCVA and OCT CMT. CONCLUSION： Prophylactic preoperative and postoperative NSAIDs may have a role in reducing the frequency and severity of CME in diabetic eyes following cataract surgery.

Role of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on intestinal permeability and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NSAIDs) is widespread worldwide thanks to their analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects. However, even more attention is placed upon the recurrence of digestive system complications in the course of their use. Recent data suggests that the complications of the lower gastro-intestinal tract may be as frequent and severe as those of the upper tract. NSAIDs enteropathy is due to enterohepatic recycling of the drugs resulting in a prolonged and repeated exposure of the intestinal mucosa to the compound and its metabolites. Thus leading to so-called topical effects, which, in turn, lead to an impairment of the intestinal barrier. This process determines bacterial translocation and toxic substances of intestinal origin in the portal circulation, leading to an endotoxaemia. This condition could determine a liver inflammatory response and might promote the development of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, mostly in patients with risk factors such as obesity, metabolic syndrome and a high fat diet, which may induce a small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and dysbiosis. This alteration of gut microbiota may contribute to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and its related disorders in two ways: firstly causing a malfunction of the tight junctions that play a critical role in the increase of intestinal permeability, and then secondly leading to the development of insulin resistance, body weight gain, lipogenesis, fibrogenesis and hepatic oxidative stress.

Maligned non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs:Misunderstanding of their safety profile in patients with renal insufficiency

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have a fundamental and pivotal position in management of many of the disorders managed by rheumatologists.Promulgation of a false perspective of their toxicity has compromised our ability to advise our patients and participate in the management of their disorders. The literature sources, from which the false perspective derives, do not accurately reflect safety and fail to address the value of appropriate drug use monitoring.We, as rheumatologists, must stand up and proactively address engrained misconceptions-if we are to be able to continue to provide safe, effective care for our patients.

The Pattern of Eosinophil Count among Nigerians with Frequent Use of the Commonly Available Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

Introduction: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) use is very common. NSAIDs use could be associated with elevated eosinophil count which could be a class effect or patient-related. Inflammation could be the link between NSAIDs use and eosinophilia. Aims: To compare the pattern of eosinophil count in the peripheral blood of frequent users of NSAIDs and healthy controls. Methodology: Two hundred (one hundred frequent users of NSAIDs and 100 healthy controls) participants who had no known risk factor for kidney disease and had given informed consent were recruited. Blood was taken to determine the white cell count and differentials, serum electrolyte and creatinine, and random blood sugar. Results: The mean age of NSAIDs users was not significantly different from controls, P = 0.3. The mean eosinophil count was higher in males than females. The incidence of eosinophilia in NSAIDs users was 4%. The mean Eosinophil count of NSAIDs users was insignificantly higher than controls, 164.3 ± 51 6 vs 135. 6 ± 53.4, P = 0.4. The mean platelet count of NSAIDs users was significantly higher compared to controls, P = 0.04. The mean hematocrit of NSAIDs users was significantly lower than the controls, P = 0.02. Propionic acid derivatives were associated with the highest eosinophil count. Eosinophil count was positively related to age and serum creatinine and inversely related to blood glucose, hematocrit and glomerular filtration rate. Conclusion: The incidence of eosinophilia was 4%. The eosinophil count was higher in frequent NSAIDs users than occasional and non-users, in males than females and with use propionic acid derivatives compared to other NSAIDs. The Eosinophil count was positively related to age and platelet count. Being commoner in inflammatory states, the tissue destruction associated with elevated EC can be avoided by the prevention and prompt treatment of inflammatory conditions.

Beneficial effect of an omega-6 PUFA-rich diet in non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced mucosal damage in the murine small intestine

AIM: To investigate the effect of a fat rich diet onnon-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug(NSAID)-induced mucosal damage in the murine small intestine.METHODS: C57BL6 mice were fed 4 types of diets with or without indomethacin.One group was fed standard laboratory chow.The other groups were fed a fat diet consisting of 8% w/w fat,beef tallow(rich in SFA),fish oil,(rich in omega-3 PUFA),or safflower oil(rich in omega-6 PUFA).Indomethacin(3 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally from day 8 to day 10.On day 11,intestines and adhesions to submucosal microvessels were examined.RESULTS: In the indomethacin-treated groups,mucosal damage was exacerbated by diets containing beef tallow and fish oil,and was accompanied by leukocyte infiltration(P < 0.05).The mucosal damage induced by indomethacin was significantly lower in mice fed the safflower oil diet than in mice fed the beef tallow or fish oil diet(P < 0.05).Indomethacin increased monocyte and platelet migration to the intestinal mucosa,whereas safflower oil significantly decreased monocyte and platelet recruitment(P < 0.05).CONCLUSION: A diet rich in SFA and omega-3 PUFA exacerbated NSAID-induced small intestinal damage via increased leukocyte infiltration.Importantly,a diet rich in omega-6-PUFA did not aggravate inflammation as monocyte migration was blocked.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in colorectal surgery: A risk factor for anastomotic complications?

In a recent article, Gorissen et al report on 795 patients with primary colorectal anastomosis operated on during the period 2008-2010 for different colorectal conditions at two centres. The leakage rate was significantly higher among patients who were administered non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the perioperative course. A dose-response relationship could also be traced, where longer NSAID use yielded a higher risk of anastomotic breakdown. However, as this study is observational in design, confounding by indication may be present and there is also a risk of residual confounding from unmeasured covariates. Moreover, the question whether different affinity for the cyclooxygenase enzyme is important in different NSAIDs seems to be largely unanswered. The results, conclusions and clinical relevance of the aforementioned study, including the possible effects of different types of NSAIDs, are discussed. While acknowledging that this study represents the best attempt so far in establishing the causal relationship between perioperative NSAID use and anastomotic leakage, the need for further research in this important area is underlined.

Tolerance effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs microinjected into central amygdala,periaqueductal grey,and nucleus raphe Possible cellular mechanism

Pain is a sensation related to potential or actual damage in some tissue of the body. The mainstay of medical pain therapy remains drugs that have been around for decades, like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs （NSAIDs）, or opiates. However, adverse effects of opiates, particularly tolerance, limit their clinical use. Several lines of investigations have shown that systemic （intraperitoneal） administration of NSAIDs induces antinociception with some effects of tolerance. In this review, we report that repeated microinjection of NSAIDs analgin, clodifen, ketorolac and xefocam into the central nucleus of amygdala, the midbrain periaqueductal grey matter and nucleus raphe magnus in the following 4 days result in progressively less antinociception compared to the saline control testing in the tail-flick reflex and hot plate latency tests. Hence, tolerance develops to these drugs and cross-tolerance to morphine in male rats. These findings strongly support the suggestion of endogenous opioid involvement in NSAIDs antinociception and tolerance in the descending pain-control system. Moreover, the periaqueductal grey-rostral ventro-medial part of medulla circuit should be viewed as a pain-modulation system. These data are important for human medicine. In particular, cross-tolerance between non-opioid and opioid analgesics should be important in the clinical setting.

Doping Control Analysis of 16 Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Equine Plasma Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are classified as Class 4 agents by the Association of Racing Commissioners International and are banned in racehorses during competition in Pennsylvania (PA). To control the abuse of these agents in racehorses competing in PA, a forensic method for screening and confirmation of the presence of these agents is needed. Equine plasma (0.5 mL) was acidified with 75 μL 1M H3PO4 to increase recovery of the analytes by liquid-liquid extraction using methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). Extracted analytes were separated by reversed-phase liquid chromatography using a C8 column under gradient condition. All 16 analytes were detected, quantified and confirmed using a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry with selected reaction monitoring (SRM) in both negative and positive electrospray ionization modes. The limit of detection, quantification and confirmation of the analytes were 1.0 - 5.0 ng/mL, 1.0 - 5.0 ng/mL and 1.0 - 20 ng/mL, respectively. The linear dynamic range of quantification was 5.0 - 200 ng/mL. The method is routinely used in anti-doping analysis to control the abuse of NSAIDs in racehorses competing in PA.

New innovation of moisturizers containing non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents for atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis is a chronic, relapsing and extremely pruritic eczematous disease which commonly affects children. The standard management consists of a combination of anti-inflammatory drugs in adjunctive with skin care management particular moisturizer application. A concern for the side effects associated with long term use of corticosteroids has also been considered. There has been an emerging interest in moisturizer containing non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as herbal extracts, vitamins, mineral and lipids. The in vitro and the in vivo studies of each agent were reviewed. The clinical study on the efficacy of moisturizers containing these agents were also demonstrated including the author's studies and clinicalexperience. These moisturizers might be considered as an alternative treatment in acute flare of mild to moderate atopic dermatitis.

Appearance of attenuated intestinal polyposis during chronic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs use

Aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) may prevent sporadic colonic neoplasia and reduce the polyp burden in familial adenomatous polyposis. A 41-year-old pharmacologist with no family history of intestinal polyps or cancer chronically consumed daily aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for decades despite recurrent and multiple gastric ulcers. A cancerous polyp in the colon was endoscopically resected. Over the next 2 decades, almost 50 adenomatous polyps were removed from the rest of his colon and duodenum, typical of an attenuated form of adenomatous polyposis. Chronic and habitual use of aspirin or NSAIDS may have important significance in delaying the appearance of adenomas. The observations here emphasize the important implications for clinical risk assessment in screening programs designed to detect or prevent colon cancer.

Kidney Function in Frequent Users of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

Background: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used for managing painful conditions. They are available as cheap, over-the-counter drugs, and commonly abused. NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandins (PGs) actions on the kidneys and can cause kidney disease and hypertension, especially when used in excess doses, for prolonged period or in stressed states. Methods: The descriptive study was carried at the Orthopaedic and Family Medicine units of the Federal Medical Centre, Abeokuta. Two hundred respondents participated in the study. One hundred frequent users of NSAIDs (with daily use for ≥ 4 weeks) and age and sex-matched controls with no known risk for kidney disease and had consented were consecutively recruited. Data were entered from history, examination and investigations (urinalysis, serum electrolyte, kidney scan and biopsy). Cases with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) 2) and dip strip proteinuria ≥ 1+ had kidney biopsy. Statistical analysis was with SPSS 21 software. Student t-test and Chi-square tests were used to compare means and proportions respectively. Pearson’s correlation test was used to determine the strength of association between independent risk factors and kidney dysfunction (KD). Results: Two hundred respondents participated in the study. Fifty one (51) females and Forty nine (49) males were recruited as cases and controls respectively. Thirteen (13) females had KD compared to 9 males, (P = 0.02). The mean age of cases with KD (63.04 yrs ± 4.21) was statistically higher than those without KD (P = 0.01). Majority of the cases were in the working population (30 - 59 yrs). Twenty two (22) frequent NSAIDs users had kidney dysfunction (KD) while six (6%) controls had KD. The proportion of subjects that used herbal medicines was higher in cases with KD than in cases without KD as well as in the controls respectively (P = 0.01). The mean kidney length and cortical thickness were significantly lower in cases with KD than in cases without KD, (P = 0.03) and (P = 0.017) respectively. The independent predictors of KD were increasing age, use of herbal remedies and duration of drug use. Conclusion: The prevalence of KD among frequent NSAIDs users was 22%, higher than controls. Risk factors identified include increasing age, use of herbal medicines, increasing body mass index (BMI), systolic blood pressure (SBP), anaemia, reduced cortical thickness and kidney volume. NSAIDs use in excess doses, prolonged period or in stressed state increases the risk for kidney dysfunction, caution is therefore needed to avoid taking these drugs in these conditions.

选择性COX-2抑制剂引起心血管风险的研究进展

非甾体抗炎药(non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs,NSAIDs)是一种有效的、广泛使用的抗炎镇痛药物,其对环氧合酶(cyclo-oxygenase,COX)亚型(COX-1、COX-2)的抑制作用将引起不同的反应,选择性COX-2抑制剂将显著增加不良心血管事件的风险,随着此类药物使用的增加和临床循证证据的积累,其带来的心血管风险引起了越来越多学者的关注。笔者通过归纳分析最新发表文献对选择性COX-2抑制剂引起心血管风险的研究进行综述,以期辅助临床合理用药,减少不良反应,提高用药安全性。