Geology and mineralization of the Bayan Obo supergiant carbonatite-type REE-Nb-Fe deposit in Inner Mongolia, China: A review

The Bayan Obo supergiant carbonatite-related rare-earth-element-niobium-iron(REE-Nb-Fe) endogenetic deposit(thereafter as the Bayan Obo deposit), located at 150 km north of Baotou City in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is the largest rare-earth element(REE) resource in the world. Tectonically,this deposit is situated on the northern margin of the North China Craton and adjacent to the Xing’anMongolian orogenic belt to the south. The main strata within the mining area include the Neoarchean Se’ertengshan Group and the Mesoproterozoic Bayan Obo Group. Generally, the rare earth, niobium, and iron mineralization within the deposit are intrinsically related to the dolomite carbonatites and the extensive alteration of the country rocks caused by the carbonatite magma intrusion. The alteration of country rocks can be categorized into three types: contact metasomatism(anti-skarn and skarn alteration), fenitization,and hornfelsic alternation. As indicated by previous studies and summarized in this review, the multielement mineralization at Bayan Obo is closely associated with the metasomatic replacement of siliceous country rocks by carbonatite magmatic-hydrothermal fluids. The metasomatic process is comparable to the conventional skarnification that formed due to the intrusion of intermediate-acid magmatic rocks into limestone strata. However, the migration pattern of Si O2, Ca O, and Mg O in this novel metasomatic process is opposite to the skarn alteration. Accordingly, this review delineates, for the first time, an antiskarn metallogenic model for the Bayan Obo deposit, revealing the enigmatic relationship between the carbonatite magmatic-hydrothermal processes and the related iron and rare earth mineralization.Moreover, this study also contributes to a better understanding of the REE-Nd-Fe metallogenetic processes and the related fluorite mineralization at the Bayan Obo deposit.

生物医学领域本体开发项目比较研究

介绍了国际上发展较好的四类生物医学领域本体,从开发时间、目的、覆盖内容、结构等方面进行了深入比较,总结出目前本体开发中存在的同义词与术语表达、对应关系与间隔尺度等主要问题。

本体应用中术语本体和信息本体解析——以生物医学信息学领域为例

本研究揭示了对本体理解的两个层面。第一个层面的本体主要指特定领域里公认的事实所构成的有关过程或实体的知识。第二层面的本体主要指对信息实体的表达,是对信息模型中容纳事物实例的信息实体概念以及概念特征和相互关系的表达。以生物医学信息学领域为例,分析了生物医学信息学领域的顶层本体、本体建立原则和Bio Portal本体平台。提出今后中国生物医学信息学领域对本体的研究重点。

无记忆间接学习结构预失真器

为了提高通信系统中功率有效性和频谱利用率,在采用预失真技术克服功率放大器(PA)的非线性失真和采用多项式模型逼近功放模型的理论基础上,分析了多项式有效阶和输出功率回退(OBO)对预失真器补偿性能的影响,并进行仿真,提出预失真建模方向,对于提高功放效率,降低系统成本,推动节能减排具有一定的实际意义。

语义网技术在生物本体研究中的应用

作为共享的词汇库,生物学本体的广泛应用为不同领域的研究人员消除分歧,增进交流,实现跨学科的整合方面做出了巨大的贡献。本文将详细阐述生物学知识表达语言中本体所起的重要作用,生物学本体研究领域中的应用现状,存在的问题和未来的发展方向。

基于BNF的OBO规范化和OWL DL转换研究

大多数生物本体包括基因本体这样重要的本体都用OBO表示。这些本体尤其是其中用共享和可控的词汇来注释的实验数据将会融入到语义网中。随着OWL语言成为W3C的本体标准建模语言,将用OBO表示的生物本体转换成用OWL语言表示显得十分必要。本文用BNF范式规范了OBO的语法,设计了一个规则将OBO转换成OWL DL,并且设计和实现了一个简易的转换系统。

OBOParser,一个基于语义网的开放生物学本体解析器

本文以OBO组织制定的规范为对象,开发了一个基于语义网技术的OBO本体解析器——OBOParser。该工具实现了OBO格式与RDF/OWL格式间的平滑转换,可以为生命科学不同研究领域的工作人员提供跨学科的语义查询和推理服务。

The giant Bayan Obo REE-Nb-Fe deposit,China:Controversy and ore genesis

Bayan Obo ore deposit is the largest rare-earth element（REE） resource,and the second largest niobium（Nb） resource in the world.Due to the complicated element/mineral compositions and involving several geological events,the REE enrichment mechanism and genesis of this giant deposit still remains intense debated.The deposit is hosted in the massive dolomite,and nearly one hundred carbonatite dykes occur in the vicinity of the deposit.The carbonatite dykes can be divided into three types from early to late：dolomite,co-existing dolomite-calcite and calcite type,corresponding to different evolutionary stages of carbonatite magmatism based on the REE and trace element data.The latter always has higher REE content.The origin of the ore-hosting dolomite at Bayan Obo has been addressed in various models,ranging from a normal sedimentary carbonate rocks to volcano-sedimentary sequence,and a large carbonatitic intrusion.More geochemical evidences show that the coarse-grained dolomite represents a Mesoproterozoic carbonatite pluton and the fine-grained dolomite resulted from the extensive REE mineralization and modification of the coarse-grained variety.The ore bodies,distributed along an E-W striking belt,occur as large lenses and underwent more intense fluoritization and fenitization.The first episode mineralization is characterized by disseminated mineralization in the dolomite.The second or main-episode is banded and/or massive mineralization,cut by the third episode consisting of aegirinerich veins.Various dating methods gave different mineralization ages at Bayan Obo,resulting in long and hot debates.Compilation of available data suggests that the mineralization is rather variable with two peaks at～1400 and 440 Ma.The early mineralization peak closes in time to the intrusion of the carbonatite dykes.A significant thermal event at ca.440 Ma resulted in the formation of late-stage veins with coarse crystals of REE minerals.Fluids involving in the REE-Nb-Fe mineralization at Bayan Obo might be REE-F-C02-NaCI-H20 system.The presence of REE-carbonates as an abundant solid in the ores shows that the original ore-forming fluids are very rich in REE,and therefore,have the potential to produce economic REE ores at Bayan Obo.the Bayan Obo deposit is a product of mantle-derived carbonatitic magmatism at ca.1400 Ma,which was likely related to the breakup of Columbia.Some remobilization of REE occurred due to subduction of the Palaeo-Asian oceanic plate during the Silurian,forming weak vein-like mineralization.

Trachytic Rock and Associated Fenitization in the Bayan Obo Ore Deposit,Inner Mongolia,China:Evidence for Magmatic-Hydrothermal Mineralization Related to a Carbonatitic Complex

Trachytic rock and its altered rock—fenite—in the Bayan Obo ore district, Inner Mongolia, China, were referred to as slate or feldspar rock before, and identified by the authors for the first time (in 1992). In the paper the mineral assemblages, structures and textures and petrochemical compositions of the rocks, as well as the electron microprobe analysis of feldspars in the rocks are described. The Sm-Nd isochron age of the trachytic rock is 1096 ± 56 Ma, with INd=0.51100±4 (2 s?) and ?Nd(t)= ?4.4 ± 0.7. Alterations of the trachytic rock, including microclinization, riebeckitization, aegirinization and biotitization, and accompanied rare element and REE mineralizations are discussed. Based on the occurrence of the trachytic rock and associated fenitization it is deduced that the Bayan Obo Fe-Nb-REE ore deposit is genetically related to magmatic-hydrothermal activity of an alkali carbonatite complex.

Bayan Obo Carbonatites:Texture Evidence from Polyphase Intrusive and Extrusive Carbonatites

Most of the so-called Bayan Obo fine-grained dolomite marbles collected from the main and east orebodies show a microporphyritic texture,namely the microphenocrysts are set in a very finegrained matrix,although nearly all of them have undergone recrystallization caused either by deformation or alteration.The texture seems likely to have maintained the original features.It is known that one of the most characteristic textures of volcanic rocks is the porphyritic texture,and the microporphyritic texture is a variety in which both the phenocrysts and the matrix are only distinguishable with the microscope.Therefore,the dolomite marbles in the main and east orebodies may be related to the extrusive carbonatites.In addition,there also occur some carbonatite sills and dykes with different textures at Bayan Obo.Thus,the Bayan Obo carbonatites are polyphase intrusive and extrusive carbonatites.

Detrital Zircon U–Pb Geochronology and Provenance of Bayan Obo Group, Northern Margin of North China Craton: New Implications for the Position of NCC in Rodinia

The paleoposition of North China Craton in Rodinia has long been in controversial. This paper mainly focuses on the U-Pb geochronological studies of detrital zircons obtained from Bayan Obo Group exposed in the Shangdu area, Inner Mongolia, aiming to provide more information for interprating this problem. Based on the acquired data, this paper comes to the following conclusions. Firstly, the depositional age of Bayan Obo Group might be from Meso- to Neoproterozoic according to the zircons U-Pb dating results. The lower succession of this group, namely Dulahala and Jianshan formations deposited between 1800 and 1650 Ma. The Halahuogete and Bilute formations deposited between 1500 and 1350 Ma. For Baiyinbaolage and Hujiertu formations, their depositional age was 1250-900 Ma. Secondly, for the provenance of Bayan Obo Group, this paper believes detrital zircons with age of 2.51-2.71 Ga and 2.00-2.48 Ga were from Guyang, Xi Ulanbulang and Zhuozi area;the Khondalite Belt provided detrital zircons with age of 1.95-1.80 Ga;zircons with age of 1.60-1.75 Ga might come from granitic rocks in Miyun Area. The magmatism after 1.60 Ga was rarely recorded in the NCC, therefore those zircons with ages younger than 1.60 Ga might come from outside of NCC. The magmatism with the same age existed in Baltic, Amazonia and Laurentia. Based on previous paleomagnetic researches, this paper proposes that NCC might receive detritus from Baltic during 1560-1350 Ma and had affinity with Laurentia and Amazonia at ~0.9 Ga in Rodinia. Baltic, Amazonia and Laurentia might be potential provenances for non-NCC detritus in Bayan Obo Group.

Composite Stratigraphy of the Sailinhudong Group and Ore-bearing Micrite Mounds in the Bayan Obo Deposits,Inner Mongolia,China

Based on studies of sequence stratigraphy, event stratigraphy, biostratigraphy and lithostratigraphy, it is concluded that the Sailinhudong Group is a part of the Bayan Obo Group. Some trilobite fragments are first found in thin sections of the rock from the lower part of the Sailinhudong Group and some Ordovician acritarchs and chitinozoans are also found in this group. A formationa unit of carbonate seismites is first recognized in the upper part and a huge micrite mound is first identified at the top. Dolomite, the host rock of the super giant Bayan Obo Fe-Nb-REE deposits, is neither an igneous carbonatite nor a common bedded sedimentary carbonate, but a huge micrite mound. It has the same macroscopic characters as the micrite mounds at the top of the Sailinhudong Group, which suggests that they should be of the same horizon. According to the fossils, the Sailinhudong and Bayan Obo Groups should be of the Early Palaeozoic rather than the Middle Proterozoic. The new discovery and new idea will throw light on the explanation of the genesis of the supergiant Bayan Obo Fe-Nb-REE deposits.

A Geochemical Study of an REE-rich Carbonatite Dyke at Bayan Obo,Inner Mongolia,Northern China

An REE-rich carbonatite dyke was found in Dulahala, close to the Bayan Obo superlarge REE-Nb-Fe mineral deposit in Inner Mongolia, northern China. The REE content in the dyke varies greatly, from 1% up to 20% (wt), which might constitute rich REE ores. Light REEs in the carbonatite are enriched and highly fractionated relative to heavy REEs and there is no Eu anomaly. The REE and trace element distribution patterns of the carbonatite are identical to those of fine-grained dolomite marble which is the host rock of the Bayan Obo REE-Nb-Fe superlarge mineral deposit. This indicates a petrogenetic linkage between the REE-rich carbonatite and the mineralizations in this region.

Re-interpretation of zircon date in a carbonatite dyke at the Bayan Obo giant REE-Fe-Nb deposit,China

Recent ce-valuation of the dating of the carbonatite dykes associated with the REE-Re-Nb giant deposit at Bayan Obo

Rare Earths, Niobium and Tantalum Minerals in Bayan Obo Ore Deposit and Discussion on Their Genesis

Bayan Obo ore deposit is endowed with and lie hidden in the Proterozoic strata. The localities and occurrences of the minerals in the ore deposit were described. It is obviously that some minerals are strata minerals and some are post strata minerals. The rare earths, niobium and tantalum minerals are exactly the post strata minerals. In these minerals the hydrothermal metasomatic phenomena distinctly reveal their metallogenic characteristics. According to tectonic movement, magma activity, mineral paragenesis, hydrothermal metasomatism, geological age and lasting time scale of metallogenesis, and some other factors, it is supposed that genesis of rare earths, niobium and tantalum minerals in Bayan Obo ore deposit are closely related with hydrothermal metallogenic solution which is differentiated from silica acid and carbonic acid magma and derived from deep seated source, and then intruded into Proterozoic strata and metasomatized. It is recognized that the metallogenesis of Bayan Obo ore deposit is undergoing a long geological period and many episodes.

Fenitized Wall Rock Geochemistry of the First Carbonatite Dyke at Bayan Obo, Inner Mongolia, China

The first carbonatite dyke at Bayan Obo is well exposed on the surface for a length and width of approximately 60 m and 1.1-1.5 m, respectively. Along its strike, the fenitized H1 （Qs） and H2 （Cs） quartzite is replaced by Na-amphiboles, aegirines, and alkali-feldspars, intermittently stretching as far away as 800 m in length. Based on petrographical characteristics, the dyke＇s fenitized wall rocks are divisible into different zones： （1） outer, （2） middle, and （3） inner. The outer zone is 5-17 m from the NW margin of the dyke. The middle zone is located at 3.5-5 m from the NW margin of the dyke. The inner contact zone is located between direct contact with the dyke and 3.5 m from the dyke. In the outer zone, upon visual examination, no evidence of outcrop fenitization was found and the major elemental rock composition is nearly identical to the unaltered H1 and H2 lithologies. In the thin sections, however, small amounts of Na-amphibole and phlogopite are present. Despite relatively poor development throughout the 5 m of fenitization, the wall rocks have retained at least a small geochemical signature comparable to the original sedimentary protolith. The fenites occurring in the inner zone exhibit distinct variations, not only for the sharp contact at the outcrop scale, but also for variations in major, rare earth elements （REE）, and trace elements and Sm-Nd isotope composition. The wall rocks within 3.5 m have undergone strong fenitization, inheriting the geochemical signature derived from the carbonatite dyke. Fenitization in the middle zone was not as strong, at least compared to the inner zone, but was stronger than the outer zone. Compared to some trace elements and REEs, the major elements are relatively immobile during fenitization. The Sm-Nd isotope data for the carbonatite dyke and the adjacent fenitized wall rocks, where the Sm and Nd originate solely from the dyke, plots as a six-point isochron with an age of 1308~56 Ma. This age is identical to that of ore-bearing dolomite carbonatite and the related ore-forming events, indicating that there may be a petrogenetic link between the two. Based on Sr and Nd isotope compositional data, the first carbonatite dyke may be derived from an enriched mantle.

Trace and Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Micrite Mound Carbonates and Other Related REE Mineralized Carbonates from Bayan Obo Area in Inner Mongolia

Geochemical study on trace and rare earth element geochemistry was carried out for different carbonates including the very REE-rich ones in the main ore bodies, a carbonatite dyke and two micrite mounds from Heilaobao far away from the Bayan Obo ore deposit, and Xishan in west Beijing. The results show that both carbonatite dyke and REE mineralized carbonates (dolomite and marble) in the main ore bodies and outside ore bodies have similarities to each other, with very extreme positive anomaly of Ba, Th, Nb, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Pb, medium positive anomaly of Y, Ho, Tb, Er, Yb and negative anomaly of Sc, Ti and Cu. The REE concentration in the mineralized carbonates changes greatly, the total REE content changes from 262×10^(-6) in both east and west ore deposits to 104562 ×10^(-6) (10.46%), which is relatively lower than those samples of carbonatite dyke, whose REE contents vary greatly, from 1% up to 20 % of mass fraction. Light REE in the carbonatites are enriched and highly fractionated relative to heavy REE and there is no Eu anomaly. The REE distribution patterns of both mineralized carbonate and carbonatite dyke are of some similarities. However, the sedimentary carbonate micrite of Salinhudong Group in Heilaobao far outside the ore bodies and the pure carbonates from Xishan in Beijing, central part of North China plate, have the similarities in REE distributions with much lower REE contents, which are significantly different from those of carbonatite dyke and REE mineralized carbonate. In Bayan Obo district, both carbonates in the ore deposit and micrite mound outside the ore deposit underwent widespread metasomatism by fluids that resulted in formation of the superlager Fe-Nb-REE mineralization. It appears that the carbonates represent the evolution products of different geological stages.

Geochemical Characteristics of a Carbonatite Dyke Rich in Rare Earths from Bayan Obo, China

The whole-rock geochemistry of a rare earths rich carbonatite dykes that locates at Dulahala and lies 3 km north-east to the East Ore body of the giant Bayan Obo RE-Nb-Fe deposit was analysed. The dyke cuts cross H1 coarse quartz sandstone and H2 fine quartzite of the Proterozoic Bayan Obo group. RE content in the dyke varies greatly up to 20% (mass fraction), which comprises rich RE ores. Light RE in carbonatites are extremely enriched and strongly fractionated relative to heavy RE, but no Eu anomaly. The carbonatite may be produced by mechanisms as follows: the carbonatite mana is directly formed by very low degree (F <1%) partial melting of enriched lithospheric mantle, leaving residual minerals characterized by abundant garnet; then the magma arises into a chamber within the crust where they will undergo fractional crystallization, which makes RE further concentrated in carbonatite. The RE patterns and spider diagrams of the carbonatite are identical to those fine-grained dolomite marble that is the ore-host rock for the Bayan Obo deposit. However, the carbonatite is calcic, which is different from the fine-grained dolomite marble in major element geochemistry. The difference is suggested to be resulted from that the carbonatite dyke is not affected by a large scale dolomitization, while the fine-grained dolomite marble might be the product of dolomitized carbonatite intrusive body that might set up a hydrothermal system in the region, which transported Mg from the Bayan Obo sediments, especially form the shales to the carbonatite intrusion.

U-Pb Ages and Hf Isotope of Zircons from a Carbonatite Dyke in the Bayan Obo Fe-REE Deposit in Inner Mongolia: its Geological Significance

Detailed studies on U-Pb ages and Hf isotope have been carried out in zircons from a carbonatite dyke associated with the Bayan Obo giant REE-Nb-Fe deposit,northern margin of the North China Craton(NCC),which provide insights into the plate tectonic in Paleoproterozoic.Analyses of small amounts of zircons extracted from a large sample of the Wu carbonatite dyke have yielded two ages of late Archaean and late Paleoproterozoic(with mean 207 Pb/206 Pb ages of 2521±25 Ma and 1921±14 Ma,respectively).Mineral inclusions in the zircon identified by Raman spectroscopy are all silicate minerals,and none of the zircon grains has the extremely high Th/U characteristic of carbonatite,which are consistent with crystallization of the zircon from silicate,and the zircon is suggested to be derived from trapped basement complex.Hf isotopes in the zircon from the studied carbonatite are different from grain to grain,suggesting the zircons were not all formed in one single process.Majority ofεHf(t)values are compatible with ancient crustal sources with limited juvenile component.The Hf data and their TDM2 values also suggest a juvenile continental growth in Paleoproterozoic during the period of 1940–1957 Ma.Our data demonstrate the major crustal growth during the Paleoproterozoic in the northern margin of the NCC,coeval with the assembly of the supercontinent Columbia,and provide insights into the plate tectonic of the NCC in Paleoproterozoic.

The occurrences and geochemical characteristics of thorium in iron ore in the Bayan Obo deposit, Northern China

The Bayan Obo deposit in northern China is an ultra-large Fe–REE–Nb deposit.The occurrences,and geochemical characteristics of thorium in iron ores from the Bayan Obo Main Ore Body were examined using chemical analysis,field emission scanning electron microscopy,energy dispersive spectrometer,and automatic mineral analysis software.Results identified that 91.69%of ThO2 in the combined samples was mainly distributed in rare earth minerals(bastnaesite,huanghoite,monazite;56.43%abundance in the samples),iron minerals(magnetite,hematite,pyrite;20.97%),niobium minerals(aeschynite;14.29%),and gangue minerals(aegirine,riebeckite,mica,dolomite,apatite,fluorite;4.22%).An unidentified portion(4.09%)of ThO2 may occur in other niobium minerals(niobite,ilmenorutile,pyrochlore).Only a few independent minerals of thorium occur in the iron ore samples.Thorium mainly occurs in rare earth minerals in the form of isomorphic substitution.Analyses of the geochemical characteristics of the major elements indicate that thorium mineralization in the Main Ore Body was related to alkali metasomatism,which provided source material and favorable porosity for hydrothermal mineralization.Trace elements such as Sc,Nb,Zr,and Ta have higher correlation coefficients with thorium,which resulted from being related to the relevant minerals formed during thorium mineralization.In addition,correlation analysis of ThO2 and TFe,and REO and TFe in the six types of iron ore samples showed that ThO2 did not always account for the highest distribution rate in rare earth minerals,and the main occurrence minerals of ThO2 were closely related to iron ore types.