Petrological Characteristics and Genesis of the Central Indian Ocean Basin Basalts

The Central Indian Ocean Basin （CIOB） basalts are plagioclase-rich, while olivine and pyroxene are very few. The analyses of 41 samples reveal high FeOT （～10-18 wt%） and TiO 2 （～1.4-2.7 wt%） indicating a ferrobasaltic composition. The basalts have high incompatible elements （Zr 63-228 ppm; Nb ～1-5 ppm; Ba ～15-78 ppm; La ～3-16 ppm）, a similar U/Pb （0.02-0.4） ratio as the normal midoceanic basalt （0.16±0.07） but the Ba/Nb （12.5-53） ratio is much larger than that of the normal midoceanic ridge basalt （～5.7） and Primitive Mantle （9.56）. Interestingly almost all of the basalts have a significant negative Eu anomaly （Eu/Eu＊=0.78-1.00） that may have been a result of the removal of feldspar and pyroxene during crystal fractionation. These compositional variations suggest that the basalts were derived through fractional crystallization together with low partial melting of a shallow seated magma.

Physical Properties,Morphology and Petrological Characteristics of Pumices from the Central Indian Ocean Basin

About 400 pumice clasts collected from the Central Indian Ocean Basin（CIOB）were studied for their morphology and were classified based on their shape and size.A majority of the samples range between1 cm and 36 cm and in the Zinggs shape diagram plot in the equant and oblate fields.The Corey Shape Factor for most of the samples is close to 0.7,which is common for volcaniclastic material. The physical properties such as density,specific gravity,void ratio,porosity,moisture content and degree of saturation,were determined for 30 pumice samples.Density varies from 0.21 to 0.74 g/cm^3 specific gravity 1.84 to 3.27,void ratio 2.21 to 10.67,porosity 67%to 91%,moisture content during sinking 0.44 to 2.35 and degree of saturation varies from 26.5%to 86%.Binocular and electron microscopy studies reveal that 60%of the vesicles are elongated,30%are spherical and 10%are fibrous.Petrography of the pumices exhibits vitrophyric texture with phenocrysts of feldspars and clinopyroxenes.X-ray diffractrogram and mineral analyses confirm plagioclase to be a major phase, while quartz and orthoclase are not uncommon.Todorokite is commonly present in the ferromanganese oxide coating present over some of the pumices.This paper also delves into some details concerning the controversial origin of the pumices and glass shards in the CIOB.

Early Palaeozoic Evolution of the Zhen' an- Xichuan Block and the Small Qinling Multi-Island Ocean Basin

Based on studies of palaeogeography, palaeobiogeography, palaeomagnetism, geochemistry and volcanism, this paper proposes that the Zhen'an-Xichuan area was a small Early Palaeozoic block rifted away from South Qinling and suturing onto North Qinling earlier than the other parts of South Qinling. In the Early Palaeozoic Qinling was a small archipelagic ocean basin with 5 rows of islands including the Zhen'an-Xichuan block. The drifting of the Yangtze and North China plates and the islands between them in the same direction at different speeds caused their suturing process to be different from the classic plate collision, which is the major feature of the suturing of the multi-island Tethys ocean basin. This also explains the problem that the Caledonian collision did not result in orogeny in eastern Qinling.

Implications of REE incorporation and host sediment influence on the origin and growth processes of ferromanganese nodules from Central Indian Ocean Basin

This study presents new major,trace and REE data for thirty-five ferromanganese nodules recovered from areas representing three different sediment types(siliceous,red clay and their transition zone)in the Central Indian Ocean Basin(CIOB)to address their genetic aspects,classification,growth rate,nature of host sediments and influence of REE in the processes of nodule formation.The nodules from CIOB are mostly either hydrogenetic(metals coming from oxygenated bottom water)and diagenetic(metals coming from suboxic sediment pore water)or a combination of both,depending on the source of supply of metal.However,a number of biogeochemical processes mediate this supply of metals which again changes from time to time,making the nodule growth process highly dynamic.This study suggests that at the initial stage of nodule growth,host sediments do not play much role in controlling the growth processes for which REEs can enter both Mn and Fe oxyhydroxide phases equally.Thus,the bottom water signature is imprinted in these early formed nodules irrespective of their host sediment substrate but with gradual growth and burial in the sediment,the main mode of metal enrichment becomes diagenetic through sediment pore water.This tends to increase the concentration of Mn,Ni and Cu over other elements which are retained in the sediment fraction.Among the REEs,Ce concentration of the nodules shows significant positive anomaly due to variation in redox potential and hence its magnitude can be used to get an idea about the metal enrichment procedure and the genetic type of the nodules.However,based on host sediment only,not much difference is found in the magnitude of Ce anomaly in these nodules.On the other hand,discrimination diagram,based on HFSE and REY chemistry,indicates that most of these nodules are of diagenetic origin under oxic condition with a trend towards hydrogenetic field.Further,the genetic type of the ferromanganese nodules from the CIOB are more effectively differentiated by a combination of their major and trace element concentrations rather than solely based on their REE or HFSE chemistry or host sediment substrate.

Lithospheric Structure Model of Central Indian Ocean Basin Using Ocean Bottom Seismometer Data

The intense deformation zone in the central Indian Ocean, south of Indian continent is one of the most complex regions in terms of its structure and geodynamics. The deformation zone has been studied and debated in 1990s for its genesis. It was argued that deformation is mainly confined to sedimentary and oceanic crustal layers, while the large wave length geoidal anomalies, on which the deformation region lies, called for deeper sources. The inter connection between deeper and the shallower sources is found missing. The current study focuses on the complexities of this region by analyzing OBS （ocean bottom seismometer） data. The data acquired by five OBS systems along a 300 km long south-north profile in the CIOB （central Indian Ocean basin） have been modeled and the crustal and sub-crustal structure has been determined using 2-D tomographic inversion. Four subsurface layers are identified representing the sediment column, upper crustal layer, lower crustal layer and a sub-crustal layer （upper mantle layer）. A considerable variation in thickness as well as velocity at all interfaces from sedimentary column to upper mantle is observed which indicates that the tectonic forces have affected the entire crust and sub-crustal configuration. The sediments are characterized by higher velocities （2.1 kin/s） due to the increased confining pressure. Modeling results indicated that the velocity in upper crust is in the range of 5.7-6.2 km/s and the velocity of the lower crust varies from 7.0-7.6 km/s. The velocity of the sub-crustal layer is in the range of 7.8-8.4 km/s. This high-velocity layer is interpreted as magmatic under-plating with strong lateral variations. The base of the 7.0 km/s layer at 12-15 km depth is interpreted as the Moho.

Structural Features and Proto-Type Basin Reconstructions of the Bay of Bengal Basin:A Remnant Ocean Basin Model

Remnant ocean basin is a key to understand the plate suturing and subsequent uplift and erosion of orogen. The Bay of Bengal Basin （BOBB） provides a typical example to analyze the remnant ocean basin structures, evolution, and relationships between depositional filling and uplifting of the Himalayan Orogen. Thirty-nine seismic profiles as well as interval velocities of well BODC3 were used to compile isopach maps of the basin. Among the seismic data, 26 seismic profiles were applied to estab- lish 8 cross sections. The cross sections suggest the basin is asymmetric, bounded to the west by the eastern continental margin of India （ECMI） with graben-horst and to the east by the Sunda conver- gence margin dominated by trench-arc system. The BOBB is characterized by a prominent down flex- ure structures caused by huge amount of Bengal fan turbidite sediments accumulation. Our isopach maps and chronology data collected from adjacent regions reveal the initial development and fast southward growth of the Bengal fan were related to the early and major stage uplift and erosion of the Himalayan Orogen, respectively. The BOBB has experienced a critical transition from an ocean basin to a remnant ocean basin at Late Oligocene. Such basin structures and evolution features indicate the BOBB provides whole records of oblique convergence of the India and Asia plates, and the early and major stage evolution of the Himalayan Orogen.

Geochemical characteristics of REY-rich pelagic sediments from the GC02 in central Indian Ocean Basin

As a potential mineral resource, the clay minerals enriched in rare earth elements including yttrium（REY） in the deep sea have been attracting great attention. However, the enrichment mechanism of REY remains unclear. To understand the geochemical characteristics and factors controlling REY enrichment in zeolite clay in the deep sea, we conducted mineral identification by XRD, major and trace element measurements by XRF and REY analyses by ICP-MS on a 1.4-m-long sediment core（GC02） located in the Central Indian Oceanic Basin（CIOB）. The main findings include：（1） the core sediments in GC02 possess elevated REY contents and exhibited a strong negative Ce anomaly, an apparent MREE bulge and positive Y anomaly. These were comparable with typical REY-rich clays in the Pacific Ocean, indicating the similar REY enrichment mechanism and the presence of REY-rich clays in the CIOB;（2） in comparison with the dataset from the Wharton Basin and DSDP site 213, the higher content of REY and stronger PAAS（Post Archean Australian Shale） normalization patterns in the GC02 sediments were likely caused by the weaker impact of terrigenous materials of GC02. The CIOB was suggested to be a promising place hosting REY rich pelagic sediments.

Tropical Indian Ocean Basin Mode recorded in coral oxygen isotope data from the Seychelles over the past 148 years

The tropical Indian Ocean （TIO） displays a uniform basin-wide warming or cooling in sea surface temperature （SST） during the decay year of E1 Nifio-Southern Oscillation （ENSO） events. This warming or cooling is called the tropical Indian Ocean Basin Mode （IOBM）. Recent studies showed that the IOBM dominates the interannual variability of the TIO SST and has impacts on the tropical climate from the TIO to the western Pacific. Analyses on a 148-year-long monthly coral δ28O record from the Seychelles Islands demonstrate that the Seychelles coral δ18O not only is associated with the local SST but also indicates the interannul variability of the basin-wide SST in the TIO. Moreover, the Seychelles coral δ180 shows a dominant period of 3-7 years that well represents the variability of the IOBM, which in return is modulated by the inter-decadal climate variability The correlation between the Seychelles coral dlSO and the SST reveals that the coral δ18O lags the SST in the eastern equato- rial Pacific by five months and reaches its peak in the spring following the mature phase of ENSO. The spatial pattern of the first EOF mode indicates that the Seychelles Islands are located at the crucial place of the IOBM. Thus, the Seychelles coral δ80 could be used as a proxy of the IOBM to investigate the ENSO teleconnection on the TIO in terms of long-time climate variability.

Impact of Tropical Indian Ocean Temperature on the Ozone Layer in East Asia

Based on the reanalysis data of monthly mean sea surface temperature (SST) from British Hadley Center and ozone mass mixing ratio from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) during 1980-2015, two indexes IOBI and IODI of the main modes characterizing SST changes in the tropical Indian Ocean——Indian Ocean Basin (IOB) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) were calculated firstly, and then the correlation of SST anomaly (SSTA) in the tropical Indian Ocean and ozone mass mixing ratio in the stratosphere over East Asia from 1980 to 2015 was analyzed. Besides, the impact of SST changes in the tropical Indian Ocean on the distribution of ozone layer in East Asia was discussed. The results show that SST changes in the tropical Indian Ocean had significant effects on stratospheric ozone distribution in East Asia, and it was consistent with the temporal changes of IOB and IOD. IOBI and IODI had a certain correlation with stratospheric ozone changes in East Asia, with a particularly significant correlation in the lower stratosphere (70 hPa) and middle stratosphere (40 hPa) especially during spring and autumn.

Late Paleozoic sedimentation and tectonics of rift and limited ocean basin at southern margin of the Qinling

The rifting and occurrence of limited oceanic basin at southern margin of Qinling separated south Qinling from Yangtze Block in late Paleozoic. Detailed sedimentary studies were carried out at two localities at southern flank of this rift-limited oceanic basin zone. and depositional architectures were then established accordingly. The results show that tectono-sedimentary stories are differing in different positions but clearly demonstrate spatial development of the rift. It is obvious that the rift in west part of Mianlue underwent two developmentary phases, early rapid subsidence and late slow subsidence, and there occurred breakup unconformity between the seccessions of the two subsidence phases. Combined with the data of structural, geochemical and chronological studies on the ophiolitic complex within the Mianlue zone. it is demonstrated that the rifting-drifting transition occurred, leading to the development of limited oceanic basin during the late Paleazoic. Spatial and temporal evolution of the rift-limited oceanic basin zone am be well correlated with Paleo-Tethyside, indicating their genetic linkage.

Evolution of the Extensional Rifted Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi Oceanic Basin During the Late Hercynian to Middle Indosinian Stage

On the basis of exhaustive researches on the facies sequences and depositlonal evolutionary process of various depositional systems, the genetic stratigraphic framework of the extensional rifted oceanic basin, which has undergone strong structural destruction, has been reconstructed by means of dynamic genetic stratigraphic analysis. Five depositional episodes have been distinguished from various isochronous stratigraphic boundaries and stratigraphic sequences with the three-dimensional structure of each depositional episode analysed in detail. The tectonic paleogeographic environment corresponding to different stages of each depositional episode has been reconstructed for individual depositional system tracts. And the evolution history of this rifted basin has been divided into four stages' initial rifting and oceanization of continental crust, stretching and spreading of the basin, subduction and basin differentiation, and convergence and collision. A NNE-trending intracontinental soft collision suture was left after the closing of the basin.

Paleoceanographic records in the Chukchi Basin, western Arctic Ocean during the late Quaternary

The late Quaternary paleoceanographic changes in the western Arctic Ocean are revealed by quan- titative studies of foraminiferal abundance, ice-rafted detritus （IRD） and its mineralogical and petrological compositions, planktonic Neogloboquadrina pachyderma （sin.） （Nps）-δ18O and -δ13C, biogenic and non-biogenic components in Core M03 token from the Chukchi Basin during the Sec- ond Chinese National Arctic Expedition cruise. Seven IRD events appeared at MIS 7, 5, 3 and 1. These IRD were carried in massive icebergs, which were exported to the Beaufort Sea through the M＇Clure Strait Ice Stream, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and then transported into the Chukchi Basin by the Beaufort Gyre. Low IRD deposition occurred during the glacial times when more extended ice cover and weakened Beaufort Gyre, while the open water condition and the intensified Beaufort Gyre during interglacial periods favored the IRD deposition. Therefore, the IRD events not only indicate the provenance of coarser detritus and ice export events, but also reflect the evolutionary histories of the Beaufort Gyre and North American ice sheet. Seven light Nps-δ18O and -δ13C excursions could respond to enhanced rates of sea ice formation resulting in the pro- duction and sinking of isotopically light brines, but was irrelevant to the warm Atlantic water and freshwater inputs. Whereas, the heavy Nps-δ18O and -δ13C values separately reflect the lessened Arctic freshwater and Pacific water, and well-ventilated surface water from the continental shelf and halocline water. Variations of CaCO3 content and planktonic foraminiferal abundance during the interglacial and glacial periods can demonstrate the incremental or diminishing input of the Atlantic water, while the total organic carbon （TOC） and opal contents increased and decreased during the glacial and interglacial periods, respectively, which could be related to the TOC degradation, opal dissolution and redox conditions of interface between the bottom water and sediments.

Role of the Oceanic Channel in the Relationships between the Basin/Dipole Mode of SST Anomalies in the Tropical Indian Ocean and ENSO Transition

The relationships between the tropical Indian Ocean basin （IOB）/dipole （IOD） mode of SST anomalies （SSTAs） and ENSO phase transition during the following year are examined and compared in observations for the period 1958-2008. Both partial correlation analysis and composite analysis show that both the positive （negative） phase of the lOB and IOD （independent of each other） in the tropical Indian Ocean are possible contributors to the E1 Nino （La Nifia） decay and phase transition to La Nifia （El Nifio） about one year later. However, the influence on ENSO transition induced by the IOB is stronger than that by the IOD. The SSTAs in the equatorial central-eastern Pacific in the coming year originate from subsurface temperature anomalies in the equatorial eastern Indian and western Pacific Ocean, induced by the IOB and IOD through eastward and upward propagation to meet the surface. During this process, however the contribution of the oceanic channel process between the tropical Indian and Pacific oceans is totally different for the IOB and IOD. For the IOD, the influence of the Indonesian Throughflow transport anomalies could propagate to the eastern Pacific to induce the ENSO transition. For the IOB, the impact of the oceanic channel stays and disappears in the western Pacific without propagation to the eastern Pacific.

A double-halocline structure in the Canada Basin of the Arctic Ocean

A year-round halocline is a particular hydrographic structure in the upperArctic Ocean. On the basis of an analysis of the hydrographic data collected in the Arctic Ocean, itis found that a double-halocline structure exists in the upper layer of the southern Canada Basin,which is absolutely different from the Cold Halocline Layer (CHL) in the Eurasian Basin. ThePacific-origin water is the primary factor in the formation of the double-halocline structure. Theupper halocline lies between the summer modification and the winter modification of thePacific-origin water while the lower halocline results from the Pacific-origin water overlying uponthe Atlantic-origin water. Both haloclines are all the year-round although seasonal and interannualvariations have been detected in the historical data.

Differences in nitrous oxide distribution patterns between the Bering Sea basin and Indian Sector of the Southern Ocean

Nitrous oxide （N2O） distribution patterns in the Bering Sea basin （BSB） and Indian Sector of the Southern Ocean （ISSO） were described and compared. In both sites, the waters were divided into four layers： surface layer, subsurface layer, N2O maximum layer, and deep water. Simulations were made to find out the most important factors that regulate the N2O distribution patterns in different layers of both sites. The results showed that in the surface water, N2O was more understaturated in the ISSO than the BSB. This phenom- enon in the surface water of ISSO may result from ice melt water intrusion and northeastward transport of the Antarctic surface water. Results of the rough estimation of air-sea fluxes during the expedition were （-0.34±0.07）-（-0.64±0.13） μmol/（m2·d） and （-1.47±0.42）-（-1.77±0.51） μmol/（m-2·d） for the BSB and the ISSO, respectively. Strongly stratified surface layer and temperature minimum layer restricted exchange across the thermocline. The N2O maximum existed in higher concentration and deeper in the BSB than the ISSO, but their contribution to the upper layer by eddy diffusions was negligible. In deep waters, a concentration difference of 5 nmol/L N2O between these two sites was found, which suggested that N2O production occurred during thermohaline circulation. N2O may be a useful tracer to study important large-scale hydrographic processes.

重力流与海底地貌动态相互作用下深水沉积体系发育演化——以大西洋赤道段菩提瓜尔盆地为例

海底地貌对重力流沉积具有重要控制作用并同时受到重力流沉积过程影响。针对重力流与海底地貌动态相互作用下深水沉积体系发育演化研究不足的问题,以大西洋赤道段菩提瓜尔盆地的局部沉积记录为解剖对象,基于三维地震资料,采用RGB三色融合技术,阐明了深水沉积体系发育演化特征,揭示了重力流与海底地貌的动态相互作用。研究区初始地貌中的主要地貌低点和次要地貌低点控制了早期深水水道和朵叶体的发育:(1)随着主要地貌低点斜坡坡度向远物源一端明显变缓,重力流的速度和能量逐渐减小,向下侵蚀能力变弱、侧向拓宽能力增强,水道剖面形态沿流向依次呈现V型、深U型及碟型;(2)因为水道限制性逐渐减弱,末端非限制性区域发育朵叶体沉积,朵页体上覆于水道充填沉积且向近物源一端生长,最终溢出到研究区西北角的次要地貌低点。水道和朵叶体沉积致使主要地貌低点远物源一端的斜坡坡度进一步变缓,后期块体流被捕获时,其沿流向携带沉积物的能力更容易降低,导致块体搬运沉积复合体(MTCs)在主要地貌低点远物源一端广泛堆积。

柴达木盆地周缘沉积锰矿带:一个极具资源潜力的锰矿集中区

近年来在阿尔金、祁连山和东昆仑地区的沉积型锰矿找矿工作取得了突破性进展。从空间分布特征看,这些锰矿均沿柴达木盆地周缘展布。前人曾针对单个矿床地质特征进行过研究,但对于柴达木盆地周缘的锰矿为什么主要形成于中—新元古代至早古生代、锰矿与柴达木地块及周缘造山带演化之间的关系等尚缺少深入的研究与总结。本文从东昆仑、阿尔金、祁连山等环柴达木盆地周缘造山带的角度,分析了沉积锰矿床地质特征和产出规律,重塑了原特提斯洋在青藏东北部的演化过程,为深入理解原特提斯构造演化与沉积锰矿成矿作用的关系提供证据。

南海中央海盆海底初始扩张时间的重新认定

由于磁异常条带识别的不确定性而使其具有多解性,因此对于应用磁异常条带对比得出的南海中央海盆海底初始扩张时间一直存在较大的争议。随着南海勘探活动的不断深入和资料的大量积累,有必要对这一重要问题给予重新认定。最新研究发现:南海中央海盆初始扩张区域的南、北边缘发育晚始新世-早渐新世(T7-Tog)沉积层序,说明洋壳基底之上的最早沉积层年代要老于原来认识的32-33Ma。在南海,持续时间长、活动强烈、形成近东-西向构造体系的变革运动发生时间为40Ma左右。南海陆缘不整合面对比证实,将T8界面(37.2-40Ma)作为南海初始扩张的破裂不整合面更为准确。由此得出结论,南海中央海盆海底初始扩张时间应为39-40Ma左右。

鄂尔多斯盆地及邻区中—晚二叠世构造-沉积环境与原型盆地演化

根据钻井、测井、野外露头及地球化学资料,参考盆地周缘构造环境、盆地构造沉降特征及沉积相展布,恢复了鄂尔多斯盆地中—晚二叠世不同时期构造-沉积环境,探讨了盆地性质及演化过程。研究结果表明:①中—晚二叠世鄂尔多斯盆地南缘和北缘经历了洋盆俯冲消减过程,以强烈的挤压构造环境为特征,上二叠统石千峰组沉积期盆地北缘古亚洲洋闭合进入陆陆碰撞阶段,盆地内构造沉降速度缓慢。②中—晚二叠世鄂尔多斯盆地为大型的克拉通内坳陷盆地,中二叠统石盒子组沉积期基准面呈下降趋势,盆地主体延续山西组沉积期南北高、中部低的古地理格局,南华北地区地势相对更低;周缘隆起区快速抬升且范围逐渐扩大,为坳陷盆地内提供物源,盆地内发育冲积扇、冲积平原、三角洲和浅湖相,向南发育残存潮坪—潟湖,呈南北向展布;晚二叠世基准面趋于稳定,湖相范围扩大,主要发育于盆地南部,潮坪—潟湖环境向南缩小。③研究区油气成藏受控于沉积环境,中二叠世发育的陆相三角洲沉积体系有利于形成储集层和盖层,且和下部煤系地层组成中二叠统良好的生-储-盖组合;上二叠统为氧化干旱的古气候,沉积水体较浅,形成的泥岩厚度小,生烃潜力有限,无法形成大规模气藏。

Petrologic perspectives on tectonic evolution of a nascent basin(Okinawa Trough) behind Ryukyu Arc: A review

Okinawa Trough is a back-arc, initial marginal sea basin, located behind the Ryukyu Arc-Trench System. The formation and evolution of the Okinawa Trough is intimately related to the subduction process of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate since the late Miocene. The tectonic evolution of the trough is similar to other active back-arcs, such as the Mariana Trough and southern Lau Basin, all of which are experiencing the initial rifting and subsequent spreading process. This study reviews all petrologic and geochemical data of mafic volcanic lavas from the Okinawa Trough, Ryukyu Arc, and Philippine Sea Plate, combined with geophysical data to indicate the relationship between the subduction sources （input） and arc or back-arc magmas （output） in the Philippine Sea Plate-Ryukyu Arc-Okinawa Trough system （PROS）. The results obtained showed that several components were variably involved in the petrogenesis of the Oki-nawa Trough lavas：sub-continental lithospheric mantle underlying the Eurasian Plate, Indian mid-oceanic ridge basalt （MORB）-type mantle, and Pacific MORB-type mantle. The addition of shallow aqueous fluids and deep hydrous melts from subducted components with the characteristics of Indian MORB-type mantle into the mantle source of lavas variably modifies the primitive mantle wedge beneath the Ryukyu and sub-continental lithospheric mantle （SCLM） beneath the Okinawa Trough. In the northeastern end of the trough and arc, instead of Indian MORB-type mantle, Pacific MORB-type mantle dominates the magma source. Along the strike of the Ryukyu Arc and Okinawa Trough, the systematic variations in trace element ratios and isotopic compositions reflect the first-order effect of variable subduction input on the magma source. In general, petrologic data, combined with geophysical data, imply that the Okinawa Trough is experiencing the＂seafloor spreading＂process in the southwest segment,＂rift propagation＂process in the middle seg-ment, and＂crustal extension＂process in the northeast segment, and a nascent ocean basin occurs in the southwest segment.