Techniques and Technological Aspects of Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis) Processing in Cameroon

Crude palm Oil (CPO) processing is very popular in African Countries. In Cameroon, various actors are involved ranging from agro-industrial complexes to traditional processing by smallholders who use very inefficient equipment and thus have low oil extraction rates. Small-scale processing by smallholders dates back to the early 1980s and has witnessed a lot of changes as a result of new actors in the sector, changing technologies and to an extent, government policies. This paper attempts a review of the origins and evolution of small-scale palm oil processing using intermediate technology, highlighting its importance to both the farmer and the national economy. An attempt is made to look into the future of this activity, with proposals for its consolidation.

The potential of domestic production and imports of oil and gas in China:an energy return on investment perspective

Concerns about China’s energy security have escalated because of the country’s high dependency on oil and gas imports, so it is necessary to calculate the availability of domestic oil and gas resources and China’s ability to obtain foreign energy through trade. In this work,the calculation was done by using the energy return on investment（EROI） method. The results showed that the EROIstnd（i.e., standard EROI） of China’s oil and gas extraction decreased from approximately 17.3：1 in 1986 to 8.4：1 in 2003, but it increased to 12.2：1 in 2013. From a company-level perspective, the EROIstnddiffered for different companies and was in the range of（8–12）：1. The EROI2,d（EROI considering energy outputs after processed and direct energy inputs） for different companies was in the range of（3–7）：1. The EROI of imported oil（EROIIO）declined from 14.8：1 in 1998 to approximately 4.8：1 in 2014, and the EROI of imported natural gas（EROIING）declined from 16.7：1 in 2009 to 8.6：1 in 2014. In 2015, the EROIIO and EROIING showed a slight increase due to decreasing import prices. In general, this paper suggests that from a net energy perspective, it has become more difficult for China to obtain oil and gas from both domestic production and imports. China is experiencing an EROI decline, which demonstrates the risk in the use of unsustainable fossil resources.

Synthesis of condensed polynuclear aromatic resin from furfural extract oil of reduced-pressure route Ⅱ

As an industrial byproduct of oil refining,furfural extract oil from reduced-pressure route Ⅱ with high aromatic content was used to prepare heat-resistant condensed polynuclear aromatic（COPNA） resin for the first time.The basic properties of furfural extract oil and the resultant COPNA resin were characterized by infrared spectroscopy（FT-IR）,nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy（1H-NMR）,thermogravimetric analysis（TGA） and elemental analysis（EA）.The result showed that heat treated furfural extract oil was successfully used for the synthesis of heat-resistant COPNA resin.The average structural parameters of raw materials and prepared resin were calculated by the improved Brown-Ladner method,and the averaged molecular structure of the resin was obtained.The reaction mechanism for the synthesis of COPNA resin was suggested as an acid-catalyzed positive ion type polymerization.

Essential Oil from Inula britannica Extraction with SF-CO_2 and Its Antifungal Activity

The aim of this study was to determine the extraction technique of supercritical fluid carbon dioxide（SF-CO 2） for the essential oil from Inula britannica flowers and its antifungal activities against plant pathogenic fungi for its potential application as botanical fungicide.The effects of factors,including extraction temperature,extraction pressure,SF-CO 2 flow rate,flower powder size,and time on the essential oil yield were studied using the single factor experiment.An orthogonal experiment was conducted to determine the best operating conditions for the maximum extraction oil yield.Adopting the optimum conditions,the maximum yield reached 10.01% at 40°C temperature,30 MPa pressure,60 mesh flower powder size,20 L h-1SF-CO 2 flow rate,and 90 min extraction time.The antifungal activities of I.britannica essential oil using the SF-CO 2 against the most important plant pathogenic fungi were also examined through in vitro and in vivo tests.Sixteen plant pathogenic fungi were inhibited to varying degrees at 1 mg mL-1concentration of the essential oil.The mycelial growth of Gaeumannomyces graminis var.tritici was completely inhibited.The radial growths of Phytophthora capsici and Fusarium monilifome were also inhibited by 83.76 and 64.69%,respectively.In addition,the essential oil can inhibit the spore germination of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.vasinfectum,Phytophthora capsici,Colletotrichum orbiculare,and Pyricularia grisea,and the corresponding inhibition rates were 98.26,96.54,87.89,and 87.35% respectively.The present study has demonstrated that the essential oil of I.britannica flowers extracted through the SF-CO 2 technique is one potential and promising antifungal agent that can be used as botanical fungicide to protect crops.

Experimental Research on the Reusing & Recycling Technology of Oil Extraction Wastewater Treatment in Oil Field

How to use water resource effectively is an important problem in developing industry. Three combined processes which are composed of oil separator+de-emulsification flocculation+sand filtration (SDF), oil separator+hydrolytic acidification+SBR (SAS) and oil separator+de-emulsification flocculation +SBR (SDS) are conducted in laboratory-scale experiment to treat oil extraction wastewater for an oil-field. The experimental results show that the removal rate of COD(chemistry oxygen demand) and oil treated by SDF process are 85% and 95% respectively, the residual oil in effluent can meet the discharge standard, but the residual COD can not. The removal rate of COD and BOD (biological oxygen demand) of the SAS effluent are 85% and 90% respectively, the BOD can meet but the COD can not meet discharge standard. So the further treatment is required in the process. The SDS effluent with removal rate of 95% and 90% are obtained for COD and BOD respectively, which can completely meet the national standards of oil wastewater discharge and refilling (China). The experimental result shows that oil extraction wastewater has turned into water resource after being treated by SDS.

Preliminary Exploration of a Novel Type High-effi-ciency Mosquito-repellent Compound Essential Oils

The essential oils were extracted from flowers and branches of Cestrum genus plant Telosma cordata(Burm. F.) Merr.,and used for purifying the mosquito-repellent refined oils. The yielded extracts were mixed with single nerve-smoothing or nerve-exciting components from lavender and peppermint or mixed with basal oils(like evening primrose),in order to prepare the novel type compound essential oils conferring mosquito-repellent and air-refreshing actions. The resulted compound was prepared into solid air freshener.

Effects of Irrigation and Drought on Growth and Essential Oil Production in O. vulgare and R. officinalis

The essential oil industry has led a rapidly growing market in American herbal medicine. The global essential oil industry was valued at an estimated 18.6 billion USD in 2020 and is expected to have a compound annual growth rate of 7.6% from 2020 to 2027. “Essential oil” is a broad term used to describe volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are often associated with a plant’s essence or aroma. These molecules are commonly extracted from a variety of different plant structures by steam distillation and cold pressing. Essential oils function as a defense against insects, bacteria, fungi, and other stressors, such as drought and cold. The most industrially important of this class of compounds are monoterpenes, steam-volatile constituents which are the most abundant terpenes throughout plants. Essential oils may include monoterpenes (two isoprene units), sesquiterpenes (three isoprene units), ketones, and phenolics. Phenolics include flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins.

Quassia undulata Oil Exploitation: Extraction’s Yield, Phytochemical Profile of Seeds and Oilcake Nutritional Value

Quassia undulata is a plant that belongs to the Simaroubaceae family. In Africa, it occurs in the wooded savannah from Senegal in the west to the Central African Republic in the east. The seeds from the plant are very rich in oil. The traditional extraction of this oil involves a phase of boiling the powder from the seeds in a decoction of Piliostigma thonningii leaves. Thus, the aim of this study is to determine the impact of Piliostigma thonningii leaves on the extraction yield, to assess the phytochemical profile of seeds and oilcake and, to determine the nutritional value of the cakes obtained after extraction. Thus, the traditional extraction of oil was carried out in the laboratory and physico-chemical and phytochemical analyses were carried out on the water decoction, the oil and, the oilcake. The results showed that the traditional extraction gives a low extraction yield (5.18% with PD and 6.12% without PD) compared to the Soxhlet extraction (56.9%). On the other hand, it was found that oil obtained by traditional extraction in the presence of Piliostigma thonningii leaves was of better physicochemical quality. Finally, oilcake very rich in proteins (36.71% - 42.69%) and mineral elements (110.9 - 152.33 mg/100g of calcium, 544.75 - 620.77 mg/100g of Potassium and 331.11 - 459.68 mg/100g of Magnesium) justify their use in human food. However, investigations should point to the impact of this traditional technique on the elimination of quassinoids, toxins and antihelminth compounds present in the seeds.

Uromedic^(■) Pumpkin Seed Derived Δ7-Sterols, Extract and Oil Inhibit 5α-Reductases and Bind to Androgen Receptor in Vitro

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is implicated in the development of benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH). We investigated if Uromedic? pumpkin (variety of Cucurbita pepo L. convar. citrullinina GREB. var. styriaca GREB) seed soft extract (active ingredients of GRANUFINK? Prosta forte 500 mg), seed oil and isolated Δ7-sterols could inhibit the conversion of [1,2,6,7-3H(N)]-testosterone to DHT by 5α-reductases. Also, we tested competition with [3H]-DHT for binding to the androgen receptor (AR). Pumpkin seed oil and pumpkin seed soft extract were identified as moderately active inhibitors of 5α-R1 and 5α-R2, with almost similar inhibitory capacities (IC50 5 mg/ml for 5α-R1 and about IC50 = 6 mg/ml for 5α-R2). The isolated Δ7-sterols were more active inhibitors (IC50 = 0.3 mg/ml for 5α-R1, IC50 = 1.0 mg/ml for 5α-R2). All three test compounds bound to the AR dose-dependently, with strong binding by Δ7-sterols (IC50 = 0.2 mg/ml) and weaker binding by pumpkin seed oil (IC50 = 0.4 mg/ml) and pumpkin seed soft extract (IC50 = 1.1 mg/ml). We propose that inhibition of 5α-reductases and competitive binding to the AR are mechanisms of action, by which the Uromedic? pumpkin seed derived test compounds, most specifically Δ7-sterols, counteract DHT and thereby exert clinically positive effects on the prostate, as well as bladder-strengthening effects.

Production of biodiesel from unused algal biomass in Punjab, India

Biodiesel from inedible sources has become prominent in last few decades. But it is economically incompatible with petroleum diesel. At the same time, both petro-diesel and biodiesels are concerned with environmental pollution, global warming, etc. Algae, on the other hand, utilize CO2 for their growth and can minimize some sort of pollution level and results in carbon credit for a country. In Punjab, India, algae are seen to grow in many water bodies. But all those are taken away and dumped in vats. Some of this huge biomass was used for production of biodiesel in this work. Extraction of oil from algae was conducted by using Soxtherm（solvent extraction）. An amount of 9 wt% of algal oil was extracted by comparatively costly hexane, whereas 8% extraction was done by cheaper acetone. In the transesterification reaction, molar ratio（methanol： oil） of 6：1, catalyst（KOH） concentration of 3 wt%, reaction temperature of 60 °C, 60 min reaction time and a settling time of 2.5 h were found to be optimum conditions to get maximum ester with minimum free fatty acid content and viscosity. A statistical analysis for the transesterification procedure also showed a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 6：1 and catalyst concentration of 3 wt% to be the optimum. Characterization of biodiesel was done and compared with ASTM/BIS standards. Most important properties of biodiesel ester like viscosity（3.12 c St or 3.12 mm2/s）, cloud and pour point（-1 and-6 °C, respectively）, flash and fire point（153 and 158 °C）, carbon residue content（0.03%）, acid number（0.36 mg of KOH/gm） were within the range of concerned standards.

Analysis of Influence Factors for FCC Slurry Separation by Mixed Solvent Extraction

Daqing FCC slurry was treated using mixed solvent containing N,N-dimethylformamide(extraction solvent)and n-paraffin(stripping-agent).The influence of solvent formulation(ratio of DMF/stripping-agent),temperature,time and solvent-oil ratio on yield and aromatics content of the extract oil were analyzed by a four-factor and three-level orthogonal experimental design.The polynomial regression models between the extract oil yield and aromatics content with the four factors were established.Response surface analysis showed that solvent formulation,temperature and solvent-oil ratio have significant effects on extraction result and there is an interaction between temperature and solvent-oil ratio on aromatics content,when the FCC slurry is extracted by mixed solvent.However,the extraction time has no significant effect.The optimal conditions for FCC slurry extraction covered:a solvent mixed ratio of 2.3,a temperature of 62.8℃,a solvent-oil ratio of 3.2,and a time of 35 min.The result of verification experiment was in good agreement with the prediction of the model.

The effect of drying of Piper hispidinervium bydifferent methods and its influence on the yield ofessential oil and safrole

The Piper hispidinervium leaves and thin stems were dried under laboratory and field conditions.Laboratory drying was performed using a shade dryer operating with and without forced convection and an oven dryer operating at 30 and 40
C.Field experiments were conducted using solar dryers with three different covers,i.e.,transparent,black plastic,and palm straw covers.The essential oil extraction was performed by steam distillation,and the safrole content was analyzed by gas chromatography.Five mathematical models(Page,logarithmic,Henderson and Pabis,fractional,and diffusion)were fitted with the experimental data and compared based on the coefficient of determination(R2),root mean square error(RMSE)and v2.Results suggest that the best model was the logarithmic model(R2>0.99,RMSE<0.0005,and v2<0.005).With sufficient drying,the safrole content increased up to 95%of the extracted oil;however,when the drying time was prolonged,both the oil yield and safrole content of the extracted oil decreased.

Cultivars and oil extraction techniques affect Cd/Pb contents and health risks in oil of rapeseed grown on Cd/Pb-contaminated farmland

Substitute planting with rapeseed offers promise for safely using large areas of Cd/Pb-contaminated farmland.Cd/Pb distributions during rapeseed oil production were investigated and health risks posed by the oil were assessed.Tests were performed using three cultivars(Brassica rapa SYH and ZS100 and Brassica napus QY-1)and four oil extraction techniques(mechanical and low-temperature pressing and n-hexane and subcritical low-temperature butane extraction).The amounts of Cd and Pb in oil were 0.73%-8.44%and 3.14%-11.76%,respectively,of the amounts in rapeseed and were strongly affected by the cultivar and oil extraction technique.The heavy metal(HM)concentrations were lower in solvent-extracted oil(particularly subcritical low-temperature butane extracted oil,in which HMs were not detected)than mechanically pressed oil.The Cd and Pb transfer indices were lower(meaning larger proportions of HMs were retained by the rapeseed meal)for B.rapa than B.napus.This was attributed to a high HM binding protein content of B.rapa seed.Health risks to humans were assessed using a probabilistic risk assessment model.The carcinogenic risk was mainly(97.1%-99.9%)caused by Cd and poses more concern than non-carcinogenic risk.Stronger health risks are posed by mechanically pressed than solvent-extracted oil,and higher carcinogenic risks are posed to people living in rural areas than urban areas.Substitute planting with B.rapa and extracting oil with organic solvent(preferably subcritical low-temperature butane)are optimal for safely utilizing Cd/Pb-contaminated soil.Attention should be paid to the health risks posed by Cd in oil to rural populations.

Greener approach to the comprehensive utilization of algal biomass and oil using novel Clostridial fusants and bio-based solvents

A greener method has been tested to utilize algal biomass as a feedstock to produce bio-oil in addition to acetone,butanol,and ethanol(ABE)products.Various hydrolysis treatments were used prior to fermentation including combination of thermal,chemical,and enzymatic,which resulted in maximum sugar release of 27.78 g/L.Bio-based terpenes was used instead of common toxic chemicals together with Clostridial fustants to produce bio-alcoholic fuels.Protoplast fusion technique were used to produce the novel Clostridia fusants(C.beijernickii+C.thermocellum and C.acetobutylicum+C.thermocellocum).Fused strains were then subjected to UV radiation for strain enhancement.Final fusansts showed clear improvement in thermal stability and resistance to biobutanol toxicity.Fermentation experiments showed maximum biobutanol final production of 7.98 g/L using CbCt versus 7.39 g/L using CaCt.Oil extraction from virgin algae was tested using a green,bio-based approach using ter-penes with ultrasonication and green Bligh and Dyer method,separately.In preliminary study on algal biomass,the combinations of ultrasonication followed by the green Bligh and Dyer have resulted in oil yield of 46.27%(d-limonene)and 39.85%(p-cymene).Oil extraction from an algae sample following fermentation using the combined extraction method resulted in significantly higher oil yield of 65.04%.

Antifungal Effect of Plant Extract and Essential Oil

The advancement of phytochemical and phytopharmacological sciences has enabled elucidation of the composition and biological activities of several medicinal plant products including plant extract and essential oils. These products have been widely used around the world since ancient times for the treatment of various disorders such as diabetes, hypertension, peptic ulcer disease, microbial infection, sexual disorder and many more. Its popularity in the modern system of medicine is mainly due to their availability and fewer adverse reactions compared to synthetic drugs. Various scientific investigations have been conducted to look for the potential of the extract from the plant or isolated compounds for the continued use of these products in the treatment and prevention of various kinds of human diseases. It is evident from the available literature and scientific investigations that many plant species possess potential for use as a beneficial therapeutic remedy with multiple pharmacological actions such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, antimicrobial, antiulcer and anticonvulsant activities. The present review aims to provide relevant updated information about certain plant products, its composition, preparation and its fungicidal or fungistatic effects on different species of fungus as evaluated by studies done in the past. It introduces six medicinal plants that have been studied for their antifungal property and are found to be effective. The overall objective is to provide comprehensive information about the use of plant extract and essential oil for treating fungal infections and to explore the evidence supporting its effectiveness in treating fungal diseases without causing any serious adverse reactions.

Extraction,quantification and characterization of oil from pumpkin seeds

A quantification and characterization study of oil from pumpkin seeds was carried out on three pumpkin varieties,namely,Japanese type of the Curcubita maxima species,Green Kabocha and butternut squash of the Cucurbita moschanta species.Oil extraction was done using the Soxhlet method with petroleum ether as the solvent.The physicochemical properties of acid value,iodine value,specific gravity and refractive index were determined.The results were analyzed statistically using one way ANOVA at a 5% level of significance.The mean values of oil content,acid value,iodine value,specific gravity and refractive index for Japanese type pumpkin were found to be 35.67%,2.24 mg KOH/g,26.45 mg I2/100 g,0.9126 and 1.47,respectively.For Green Kabocha,the mean values of the above five properties were 30.12%,3.35 mg KOH/g,25.3 mg I2/100 g,0.9126 and 1.469,respectively.For the Butternut squash type the mean values of the above five properties were 34.76%,3.74 mg KOH/g,26.61 mg I2,0.9131 and 1.471,respectively.It can be noted that from the low acid values of the pumpkin oil,pumpkin oil can be identified as edible.Also the low iodine value indicated that the pumpkin oil was non-drying.In addition,the low iodine value also suggested that the oil contains few unsaturated bonds and therefore has low susceptibility to oxidative rancidity.With a comparison of extraction rates from other oil sources in Uganda such as cotton(15%-20%),soybeans(19%-21%),the obtained results in this study suggested that pumpkin seeds are a viable source of vegetable oils that can be utilized for commercial vegetable oil extraction in Uganda.

Highly effective extraction of oil from soybean by pretreatment of solid-state fermentation with fungi

The solid-state prefermentation by Aspergillus niger(CICC 2377)and Aspergillus flavus(CICC 40536)was employed to increase the oil extraction yield from soybean.The influence of incubation time on oil yield was investigated.The maximum oil yield extracted from the substrate prefermented by Aspergillus niger for 96 h was 23%,which increased by 47.4%compared with control(15.6%).In the same fermentation conditions,the maximum oil yield extracted from substrate prefermented by Aspergillus flavus was 21.6%,which increased by 38.5%compared with control(15.6%).The quality of soybean oil was not changed obviously by the pretreatment of fermentation with fungi.