Effects of data smoothing and recurrent neural network(RNN)algorithms for real-time forecasting of tunnel boring machine(TBM)performance

Tunnel boring machines(TBMs)have been widely utilised in tunnel construction due to their high efficiency and reliability.Accurately predicting TBM performance can improve project time management,cost control,and risk management.This study aims to use deep learning to develop real-time models for predicting the penetration rate(PR).The models are built using data from the Changsha metro project,and their performances are evaluated using unseen data from the Zhengzhou Metro project.In one-step forecast,the predicted penetration rate follows the trend of the measured penetration rate in both training and testing.The autoregressive integrated moving average(ARIMA)model is compared with the recurrent neural network(RNN)model.The results show that univariate models,which only consider historical penetration rate itself,perform better than multivariate models that take into account multiple geological and operational parameters(GEO and OP).Next,an RNN variant combining time series of penetration rate with the last-step geological and operational parameters is developed,and it performs better than other models.A sensitivity analysis shows that the penetration rate is the most important parameter,while other parameters have a smaller impact on time series forecasting.It is also found that smoothed data are easier to predict with high accuracy.Nevertheless,over-simplified data can lose real characteristics in time series.In conclusion,the RNN variant can accurately predict the next-step penetration rate,and data smoothing is crucial in time series forecasting.This study provides practical guidance for TBM performance forecasting in practical engineering.

Research on visual differences of exits of different grades of tunnels based on machine learning

Tunnels are vital in connecting crucial transportation hubs as transportation infrastructure evolves.Variations in tunnel design standards and driving conditions across different levels directly impact driver visual perception and traffic safety.This study employs a Gaussian hybrid clustering machine learning model to explore driver gaze patterns in highway tunnels and exits.By utilizing contour coefficients,the optimal number of classification clusters is determined.Analysis of driver visual behavior across tunnel levels,focusing on gaze point distribution,gaze duration,and sweep speed,was conducted.Findings indicate freeway tunnel exits exhibit three distinct fixation point categories aligning with Gaussian distribution,while highway tunnels display four such characteristics.Notably,in both tunnel types,65%of driver gaze is concentrated on the near area ahead of their lane.Differences emerge in highway tunnels due to oncoming traffic,leading to 13.47%more fixation points and 0.9%increased fixation time in the right lane compared to regular highway tunnel conditions.Moreover,scanning speeds predominantly fall within the 0.25-0.3 range,accounting for 75.47%and 31.14%of the total sweep speed.

Tunnelling performance prediction of cantilever boring machine in sedimentary hard-rock tunnel using deep belief network

Evaluating the adaptability of cantilever boring machine(CBM) through in-depth excavation and analysis of tunnel excavation data and rock mass parameters is the premise of mechanical design and efficient excavation in the field of underground space engineering.This paper presented a case study of tunnelling performance prediction method of CBM in sedimentary hard-rock tunnel of Karst landform type by using tunneling data and surrounding rock parameters.The uniaxial compressive strength(UCS),rock integrity factor(Kv),basic quality index([BQ]),rock quality index RQD,brazilian tensile strength(BTS) and brittleness index(BI) were introduced to construct a performance prediction database based on the hard-rock tunnel of Guiyang Metro Line 1 and Line 3,and then established the performance prediction model of cantilever boring machine.Then the deep belief network(DBN) was introduced into the performance prediction model,and the reliability of performance prediction model was verified by combining with engineering data.The study showed that the influence degree of surrounding rock parameters on the tunneling performance of the cantilever boring machine is UCS > [BQ] > BTS >RQD > Kv > BI.The performance prediction model shows that the instantaneous cutting rate(ICR) has a good correlation with the surrounding rock parameters,and the predicting model accuracy is related to the reliability of construction data.The prediction of limestone and dolomite sections of Line 3 based on the DBN performance prediction model shows that the measured ICR and predicted ICR is consistent and the built performance prediction model is reliable.The research results have theoretical reference significance for the applicability analysis and mechanical selection of cantilever boring machine for hard rock tunnel.

Vote-Based Feature Selection Method for Stratigraphic Recognition in Tunnelling Process of Shield Machine

Shield machines are currently the main tool for underground tunnel construction. Due to the complexity and variability of the underground construction environment, it is necessary to accurately identify the ground in real-time during the tunnel construction process to match and adjust the tunnel parameters according to the geological conditions to ensure construction safety. Compared with the traditional method of stratum identifcation based on staged drilling sampling, the real-time stratum identifcation method based on construction data has the advantages of low cost and high precision. Due to the huge amount of sensor data of the ultra-large diameter mud-water balance shield machine, in order to balance the identifcation time and recognition accuracy of the formation, it is necessary to screen the multivariate data features collected by hundreds of sensors. In response to this problem, this paper proposes a voting-based feature extraction method (VFS), which integrates multiple feature extraction algorithms FSM, and the frequency of each feature in all feature extraction algorithms is the basis for voting. At the same time, in order to verify the wide applicability of the method, several commonly used classifcation models are used to train and test the obtained efective feature data, and the model accuracy and recognition time are used as evaluation indicators, and the classifcation with the best combination with VFS is obtained. The experimental results of shield machine data of 6 diferent geological structures show that the average accuracy of 13 features obtained by VFS combined with diferent classifcation algorithms is 91%;among them, the random forest model takes less time and has the highest recognition accuracy, reaching 93%, showing best compatibility with VFS. Therefore, the VFS algorithm proposed in this paper has high reliability and wide applicability for stratum identifcation in the process of tunnel construction, and can be matched with a variety of classifer algorithms. By combining 13 features selected from shield machine data features with random forest, the identifcation of the construction stratum environment of shield tunnels can be well realized, and further theoretical guidance for underground engineering construction can be provided.

Real-time prediction of mechanical behaviors of underwater shield tunnel structure using machine learning method based on structural health monitoring data

Predicting the mechanical behaviors of structure and perceiving the anomalies in advance are essential to ensuring the safe operation of infrastructures in the long run.In addition to the incomplete consideration of influencing factors,the prediction time scale of existing studies is rough.Therefore,this study focuses on the development of a real-time prediction model by coupling the spatio-temporal correlation with external load through autoencoder network(ATENet)based on structural health monitoring(SHM)data.An autoencoder mechanism is performed to acquire the high-level representation of raw monitoring data at different spatial positions,and the recurrent neural network is applied to understanding the temporal correlation from the time series.Then,the obtained temporal-spatial information is coupled with dynamic loads through a fully connected layer to predict structural performance in next 12 h.As a case study,the proposed model is formulated on the SHM data collected from a representative underwater shield tunnel.The robustness study is carried out to verify the reliability and the prediction capability of the proposed model.Finally,the ATENet model is compared with some typical models,and the results indicate that it has the best performance.ATENet model is of great value to predict the realtime evolution trend of tunnel structure.

Vibrations induced by tunnel boring machine in urban areas: In situ measurements and methodology of analysis

Excavation with tunnel boring machine(TBM)can generate vibrations,causing damages to neighbouring buildings and disturbing the residents or the equipment.This problem is particularly challenging in urban areas,where TBMs are increasingly large in diameter and shallow in depth.In response to this problem,four experimental campaigns were carried out in different geotechnical contexts in France.The vibration measurements were acquired on the surface and inside the TBMs.These measurements are also complemented by few data in the literature.An original methodology of signal processing is pro-posed to characterize the amplitude of the particle velocities,as well as the frequency content of the signals to highlight the most energetic bands.The levels of vibrations are also compared with the thresholds existing in various European regulations concerning the impact on neighbouring structures and the disturbance to local residents.

Soft ground tunnel lithology classification using clustering-guided light gradient boosting machine

During tunnel boring machine(TBM)excavation,lithology identification is an important issue to understand tunnelling performance and avoid time-consuming excavation.However,site investigation generally lacks ground samples and the information is subjective,heterogeneous,and imbalanced due to mixed ground conditions.In this study,an unsupervised(K-means)and synthetic minority oversampling technique(SMOTE)-guided light-gradient boosting machine(LightGBM)classifier is proposed to identify the soft ground tunnel classification and determine the imbalanced issue of tunnelling data.During the tunnel excavation,an earth pressure balance(EPB)TBM recorded 18 different operational parameters along with the three main tunnel lithologies.The proposed model is applied using Python low-code PyCaret library.Next,four decision tree-based classifiers were obtained in a short time period with automatic hyperparameter tuning to determine the best model for clustering-guided SMOTE application.In addition,the Shapley additive explanation(SHAP)was implemented to avoid the model black box problem.The proposed model was evaluated using different metrics such as accuracy,F1 score,precision,recall,and receiver operating characteristics(ROC)curve to obtain a reasonable outcome for the minority class.It shows that the proposed model can provide significant tunnel lithology identification based on the operational parameters of EPB-TBM.The proposed method can be applied to heterogeneous tunnel formations with several TBM operational parameters to describe the tunnel lithologies for efficient tunnelling.

Heterogeneity identification method for surrounding rock of large-section rock tunnel faces based on support vector machine

Purpose–The purpose of the study is to quickly identify significant heterogeneity of surrounding rock of tunnel face that generally occurs during the construction of large-section rock tunnels of high-speed railways.Design/methodology/approach–Relying on the support vector machine(SVM)-based classification model,the nominal classification of blastholes and nominal zoning and classification terms were used to demonstrate the heterogeneity identification method for the surrounding rock of tunnel face,and the identification calculation was carried out for the five test tunnels.Then,the suggestions for local optimization of the support structures of large-section rock tunnels were put forward.Findings–The results show that compared with the two classification models based on neural networks,the SVM-based classification model has a higher classification accuracy when the sample size is small,and the average accuracy can reach 87.9%.After the samples are replaced,the SVM-based classification model can still reach the same accuracy,whose generalization ability is stronger.Originality/value–By applying the identification method described in this paper,the significant heterogeneity characteristics of the surrounding rock in the process of two times of blasting were identified,and the identification results are basically consistent with the actual situation of the tunnel face at the end of blasting,and can provide a basis for local optimization of support parameters.

Modelling the performance of EPB shield tunnelling using machine and deep learning algorithms

This paper introduces an intelligent framework for predicting the advancing speed during earth pressure balance(EPB)shield tunnelling.Five artificial intelligence(AI)models based on machine and deep learning techniques-back-propagation neural network(BPNN),extreme learning machine(ELM),support vector machine(SVM),long-short term memory(LSTM),and gated recurrent unit(GRU)-are used.Five geological and nine operational parameters that influence the advancing speed are considered.A field case of shield tunnelling in Shenzhen City,China is analyzed using the developed models.A total of 1000 field datasets are adopted to establish intelligent models.The prediction performance of the five models is ranked as GRU>LSTM>SVM>ELM>BPNN.Moreover,the Pearson correlation coefficient(PCC)is adopted for sensitivity analysis.The results reveal that the main thrust(MT),penetration(P),foam volume(FV),and grouting volume(GV)have strong correlations with advancing speed(AS).An empirical formula is constructed based on the high-correlation influential factors and their corresponding field datasets.Finally,the prediction performances of the intelligent models and the empirical method are compared.The results reveal that all the intelligent models perform better than the empirical method.

The Time and Cost Prediction of Tunnel Boring Machine in Tunnelling

Making use of microsoft visual studio. net platform, the assistant decision-making system of tunnel boring machine in tunnelling has been built to predict the time and cost. Computation methods of the performance parameters have been discussed. New time and cost prediction models have been depicted. The multivariate linear regression has been used to make the parameters more precise, which are the key factor to affect the prediction near to the reality.

Design Theory of Full Face Rock Tunnel Boring Machine Transition Cutter Edge Angle and Its Application

At present, the inner cutters of a full face rock tunnel boring machine (TBM) and transition cutter edge angles are designed on the basis of indentation test or linear grooving test. The inner and outer edge angles of disc cutters are characterized as symmetric to each other with respect to the cutter edge plane. This design has some practical defects, such as severe eccentric wear and tipping, etc. In this paper, the current design theory of disc cutter edge angle is analyzed, and the characteristics of the rock-breaking movement of disc cutters are studied. The researching results show that the rotational motion of disc cutters with the cutterhead gives rise to the difference between the interactions of inner rock and outer rock with the contact area of disc cutters, with shearing and extrusion on the inner rock and attrition on the outer rock. The wear of disc cutters at the contact area is unbalanced, among which the wear in the largest normal stress area is most apparent. Therefore, a three-dimensional model theory of rock breaking and an edge angle design theory of transition disc cutter are proposed to overcome the flaws of the currently used TBM cutter heads, such as short life span, camber wearing, tipping. And a corresponding equation is established. With reference to a specific construction case, the edge angle of the transition disc cutter has been designed based on the theory. The application of TBM in some practical project proves that the theory has obvious advantages in enhancing disc cutter life, decreasing replacement frequency, and making economic benefits. The proposed research provides a theoretical basis for the design of TBM three-dimensional disc cutters whose rock-breaking operation time can be effectively increased.

Wear Analysis of Disc Cutters of Full Face Rock Tunnel Boring Machine

Wear is a major factor of disc cutters’ failure. No current theory offers a standard for the prediction of disc cutter wear yet. In the field the wear prediction method commonly used is based on the excavation length of tunnel boring machine（TBM） to predict the disc cutter wear and its wear law, considering the location number of each disc cutter on the cutterhead（radius for installation）; in theory, there is a prediction method of using arc wear coefficient. However, the preceding two methods have their own errors, with their accuracy being 40% or so and largely relying on the technicians’ experience. Therefore, radial wear coefficient, axial wear coefficient and trajectory wear coefficient are defined on the basis of the operating characteristics of TBM. With reference to the installation and characteristics of disc cutters, those coefficients are modified according to penetration, which gives rise to the presentation of comprehensive axial wear coefficient, comprehensive radial wear coefficient and comprehensive trajectory wear coefficient. Calculation and determination of wear coefficients are made with consideration of data from a segment of TBM project（excavation length 173 m）. The resulting wear coefficient values, after modification, are adopted to predict the disc cutter wear in the follow-up segment of the TBM project（excavation length of 5621 m）. The prediction results show that the disc cutter wear predicted with comprehensive radial wear coefficient and comprehensive trajectory wear coefficient are not only accurate（accuracy 16.12%） but also highly congruous, whereas there is a larger deviation in the prediction with comprehensive axial wear coefficient（accuracy 41%, which is in agreement with the prediction of disc cutters’ life in the field）. This paper puts forth a new method concerning prediction of life span and wear of TBM disc cutters as well as timing for replacing disc cutters.

Theoretical prediction of wear of disc cutters in tunnel boring machine and its application

Predicting the cutter consumption and the exact time to replace the worn-out cutters in tunneling projects constructed with tunnel boring machine(TBM) is always a challenging issue. In this paper, we focus on the analyses of cutter motion in the rock breaking process and trajectory of rock breaking point on the cutter edge in rocks. The analytical expressions of the length of face along which the breaking point moves and the length of spiral trajectory of the maximum penetration point are derived. Through observation of rock breaking process of disc cutters as well as analysis of disc rock interaction, the following concepts are proposed: the arc length theory of predicting wear extent of inner and center cutters, and the spiral theory of predicting wear extent of gage and transition cutters. Data obtained from5621 m-long Qinling tunnel reveal that among 39 disc cutters, the relative errors between cumulatively predicted and measured wear values for nine cutters are larger than 20%, while approximately 76.9% of total cutters have the relative errors less than 20%. The proposed method could offer a new attempt to predict the disc cutter's wear extent and changing time.

Load-sharing Characteristic of Multiple Pinions Driving in Tunneling Boring Machine

The failure of the key parts, such as gears, in cutter head driving system of tunneling boring machine has not been properly solved under the interaction of driving motors asynchronously and wave tunneling torque load. A dynamic model of multi-gear driving system is established considering the inertia effects of driving mechanism and cutter head as well as the bending-torsional coupling. By taking into account the nonlinear coupling factors between ring gear and multiple pinions, the influence for meshing angle by bending-torsional coupling and the dynamic load-sharing characteristic of multiple pinions driving are analyzed. Load-sharing coefficients at different rotating cutter head speeds and input torques are presented. Numerical results indicate that the load-sharing coefficients can reach up to 1.2-1.3. A simulated experimental platform of the multiple pinions driving is carried out and the torque distributions under the step load in driving shaft of pinions are measured. The imbalance of torque distribution of pinions is verified and the load-sharing coefficients in each pinion can reach 1.262. The results of simulation and test are similar, which shows the correctness of theoretical model. A loop coupling control method is put forward based on current torque master slave control method. The imbalance of the multiple pinions driving in cutter head driving system of tunneling boring machine can be greatly decreased and the load-sharing coefficients can be reduced to 1.051 by using the loop coupling control method. The proposed research provides an effective solution to the imbalance of torque distribution and synchronous control method for multiple pinions driving of TBM.

Performance characteristics of tunnel boring machine in basalt and pyroclastic rocks of Deccan traps–A case study

A12.24km long tunnel between Maroshi and Ruparel College is being excavated by tunnel boring machine(TBM)to improve the water supply system of Greater Mumbai,India.In this paper,attempt has been made to establish the relationship between various litho-units of Deccan traps,stability of tunnel and TBM performances during the construction of5.83km long tunnel between Maroshi and Vakola.The Maroshi–Vakola tunnel passes under the Mumbai Airport and crosses both runways with an overburden cover of around70m.The tunneling work was carried out without disturbance to the ground.The rock types encountered during excavation arefine compacted basalt,porphyritic basalt,amygdaloidal basalt pyroclastic rocks with layers of red boles and intertrappean beds consisting of various types of shales Relations between rock mass properties,physico-mechanical properties,TBM specifications and the cor responding TBM performance were established.A number of support systems installed in the tunne during excavation were also discussed.The aim of this paper is to establish,with appropriate accuracy the nature of subsurface rock mass condition and to study how it will react to or behave during under ground excavation by TBM.The experiences gained from this project will increase the ability to cope with unexpected ground conditions during tunneling using TBM.

Machine learning-based automatic control of tunneling posture of shield machine

For a tunnel driven by a shield machine,the posture of the driving machine is essential to the construction quality and environmental impact.However,the machine posture is controlled by the experienced driver of shield machine by setting hundreds of tunneling parameters empirically.Machine learning(ML)algorithm is an alternative method that can let the computer to learn from the driver’s operation and try to model the relationship between parameters automatically.Thus,in this paper,three ML algorithms,i.e.multi-layer perception(MLP),support vector machine(SVM)and gradient boosting regression(GBR),are improved by genetic algorithm(GA)and principal component analysis(PCA)to predict the tunneling posture of the shield machine.A set of the parameters for shield tunneling is extracted from the construction site of a Shanghai metro.In total,53,785 pairwise data points are collected for about 373 d and the ratio between training set,validation set and test set is 3:1:1.Each pairwise data point includes 83 types of parameters covering the shield posture,construction parameters,and soil stratum properties at the same time.The test results show that the averaged R2 of MLP,SVM and GBR based models are 0.942,0.935 and 0.6,respectively.Then the automatic control for the posture of shield tunnel is illustrated with an application example of the proposed models.The proposed method is proved to be helpful in controlling the construction quality with optimized construction parameters.

Comparison of machine learning methods for ground settlement prediction with different tunneling datasets

This study integrates different machine learning(ML) methods and 5-fold cross-validation(CV) method to estimate the ground maximal surface settlement(MSS) induced by tunneling.We further investigate the applicability of artificial intelligent(AI) based prediction through a comparative study of two tunnelling datasets with different sizes and features.Four different ML approaches,including support vector machine(SVM),random forest(RF),back-propagation neural network(BPNN),and deep neural network(DNN),are utilized.Two techniques,i.e.particle swarm optimization(PSO) and grid search(GS)methods,are adopted for hyperparameter optimization.To assess the reliability and efficiency of the predictions,three performance evaluation indicators,including the mean absolute error(MAE),root mean square error(RMSE),and Pearson correlation coefficient(R),are calculated.Our results indicate that proposed models can accurately and efficiently predict the settlement,while the RF model outperforms the other three methods on both datasets.The difference in model performance on two datasets(Datasets A and B) reveals the importance of data quality and quantity.Sensitivity analysis indicates that Dataset A is more significantly affected by geological conditions,while geometric characteristics play a more dominant role on Dataset B.

Effectiveness of predicting tunneling-induced ground settlements using machine learning methods with small datasets

Prediction of tunneling-induced ground settlements is an essential task,particularly for tunneling in urban settings.Ground settlements should be limited within a tolerable threshold to avoid damages to aboveground structures.Machine learning(ML)methods are becoming popular in many fields,including tunneling and underground excavations,as a powerful learning and predicting technique.However,the available datasets collected from a tunneling project are usually small from the perspective of applying ML methods.Can ML algorithms effectively predict tunneling-induced ground settlements when the available datasets are small?In this study,seven ML methods are utilized to predict tunneling-induced ground settlement using 14 contributing factors measured before or during tunnel excavation.These methods include multiple linear regression(MLR),decision tree(DT),random forest(RF),gradient boosting(GB),support vector regression(SVR),back-propagation neural network(BPNN),and permutation importancebased BPNN(PI-BPNN)models.All methods except BPNN and PI-BPNN are shallow-structure ML methods.The effectiveness of these seven ML approaches on small datasets is evaluated using model accuracy and stability.The model accuracy is measured by the coefficient of determination(R2)of training and testing datasets,and the stability of a learning algorithm indicates robust predictive performance.Also,the quantile error(QE)criterion is introduced to assess model predictive performance considering underpredictions and overpredictions.Our study reveals that the RF algorithm outperforms all the other models with the highest model prediction accuracy(0.9)and stability(3.0210^(-27)).Deep-structure ML models do not perform well for small datasets with relatively low model accuracy(0.59)and stability(5.76).The PI-BPNN architecture is proposed and designed for small datasets,showing better performance than typical BPNN.Six important contributing factors of ground settlements are identified,including tunnel depth,the distance between tunnel face and surface monitoring points(DTM),weighted average soil compressibility modulus(ACM),grouting pressure,penetrating rate and thrust force.

3D Finite Element Simulation of Tunnel Boring Machine Construction Processes in Deep Water Conveyance Tunnel

Applying stiffness migration method,a 3D finite element mechanical model is established to simulate the excavation and advance processes.By using 3D nonlinear finite element method,the tunnel boring machine(TBM) excavation process is dynamically simulated to analyze the stress and strain field status of surrounding rock and segment.The maximum tensile stress of segment ring caused by tunnel construction mainly lies in arch bottom and presents zonal distribution.The stress increases slightly and limitedly in the course of excavation.The maximum and minimum displacements of segment,manifesting as zonal distribution,distribute in arch bottom and vault respectively.The displacements slightly increase with the advance of TBM and gradually tend to stability.

Pressure Regulation for Earth Pressure Balance Control on Shield Tunneling Machine by Using Adaptive Robust Control

Most current studies about shield tunneling machine focus on the construction safety and tunnel structure stability during the excavation. Behaviors of the machine itself are also studied, like some tracking control of the machine. Yet, few works concern about the hydraulic components, especially the pressure and flow rate regulation components. This research focuses on pressure control strategies by using proportional pressure relief valve, which is widely applied on typical shield tunneling machines. Modeling of a commercial pressure relief valve is done. The modeling centers on the main valve, because the dynamic performance is determined by the main valve. To validate such modeling, a frequency-experiment result of the pressure relief valve, whose bandwidth is about 3 Hz, is presented as comparison. The modeling and the frequency experimental result show that it is reasonable to regard the pressure relief valve as a second-order system with two low corner frequencies. PID control, dead band compensation control and adaptive robust control（ARC） are proposed and simulation results are presented. For the ARC, implements by using first order approximation and second order approximation are presented. The simulation results show that the second order approximation implement with ARC can track 4 Hz sine signal very well, and the two ARC simulation errors are within 0.2 MPa. Finally, experiment results of dead band compensation control and adaptive robust control are given. The results show that dead band compensation had about 30° phase lag and about 20% off of the amplitude attenuation. ARC is tracking with little phase lag and almost no amplitude attenuation. In this research, ARC has been tested on a pressure relief valve. It is able to improve the valve＇s dynamic performances greatly, and it is capable of the pressure control of shield machine excavation.