Hydrothermal treatment of pearl millet grains:Effects on nutritional composition,antinutrients and flour properties

Pearl millet(Pennisetum glaucum)is one of the major millets with high nutritional properties.This crop exhibits exceptional resilience to drought and high temperatures.However,the processing of pearl millet poses a significant challenge due to its high lipid content,enzyme activity,and presence of antinutrients.Consequently,it becomes imperative to enhance the quality and prolong the shelf life of pearl millet flour by employing suitable technologies.Hydrothermal treatment in the food industry has long been seen as promising due to its potential to reduce microbial load,inactivate enzymes,and improve nutrient retention.This study aims to investigate the effects of hydrothermal treatment on the quality characteristics of pearl millet.The independent variables of the study were soaking temperature(35,45,55℃),soaking time(2,3,4 h),and steaming time(5,10,15 min).Treatment conditions had a statistically significant effect on nutrient retention.Major antinutrients like tannins and phytates were reduced by 0.99% to 5.94% and 0.36% to 6.00%,respectively,after the treatment.Lipase activity decreased significantly up to 10% with the treatment conditions.The findings of this study could potentially encourage the use of pearl millet flour in the production of various food items and promote the application of hydrothermal treatment in the field of food processing.

Effects of Salinity and Potassium Application on Antioxidant Enzyme Activities and Physiological Parameters in Pearl Millet

A plot culture experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at University of Zabol,Iran,to study the effects of different salinity levels and potassium supply on pearl millet.The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized factorial design with three replicates.Potassium sulfate was used as the potassium source.The rates of potassium treatments were 0,100,and 200 kg ha-1.Pearl millet was subjected to different salinity levels（0,4,8,and 12 ds m-1） through addition of NaCl to irrigation water.Results showed that the increase in the salt concentration from control to 12 ds m-1 decreased grain yield（38.7%） of millet plants.In this study,we found a negative relationship between potassium and proline accumulation at vegetative（r2=-0.75＊＊） and reproductive stage（r2=-0.66＊＊） in millet plants.Salt stress remarkably elevated the activities of CAT and GPX antioxidant enzymes at vegetative and reproductive stages.Furthermore,potassium application had significant effect on grain yield and increased it about 10.6% at the highest salinity treatment（12 ds m-1）.Though,potassium treatment increased antioxidant activity in millet plants,it had no significant effect on proline content in leaves.Salinity treatment decreased potassium uptake but application potassium increased potassium content in leaves at two stages.

Recognizing production options for pearl millet in Pakistan under changing climate scenarios

Climate change is making the lands a harsher environment all over the world including Pakistan. It is expected to oppose us with three main challenges： increase in temperature up to 2-5℃ （heat stress）, increasing water stress and severe malnourishment due to climate change. It has been foreseen that there will be a 10% increase of dryland areas with climate change in the world, with more variability and incidences of short periods of extreme events （drought and heat stress）. Pearl millet is a hardy, climate smart grain crop, idyllic for environments prone to drought and heat stresses. The crop continues to produce highly nutritious grain sustainably, thereby encouraging the fight against poverty and food insecurity due to its resilience. The crop is more responsive to good production options （planting time, planting density, inter/intra row spacing, nitrogen application and irrigation）. It has high crop growth rate, large leaf area index and high radiation use efficiency that confers its high potential yield. In most of the cases, pearl millet is remained our agricultural answer to the climate calamity that we are facing, because it is selected as water saving, drought tolerant and climate change complaint crop. In view of circumstances, pearl millet cultivation must be retrieved by recognizing production options in context to changing climate scenarios of Pakistan using crop modeling techniques.

Improved Tolerance of Three Saudi Pearl Millet Cultivars (Pennisetum spicatum) to Salt Stress by Mycorrhiza

Seeds of three Saudi pearl millet cultivars(Pennisetum spicatum)from three regions(Madinah,Khulais and Jaizan)were inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae obtained from the Agriculture Research Center of Giza,Egypt to enhance their salt tolerance.Five different NaCl concentrations(0,30,60,90,and 120 mM)were used for treating cultivars with and without mycorrhiza.Growth rates,chlorophyll content,chlorophyll fluorescence(Fv/Fm),proline content and gas exchange were measured to determine the effect of salinity on these cultivars.The results indicated that compared to cultivars without mycorrhiza,all cultivars with mycorrhiza had enhanced growth and physiological parameters including shoot and root length,area and number of leaves,fresh and dry weights of shoots and roots,chlorophyll contents and gas exchanges at 0 and 30 mM of salinity.In addition,the measurements of the different growth rates showed higher growth performance of the cultivars from Madinah and Khulais than the cultivar from Jaizan.However,all cultivars with and without mycorrhiza showed significant reductions in growth rates,chlorophyll contents and gas exchanges at a salinity of 60 mM than those grown at 0 and 30 mM.Moreover,the values of Fv/Fm were significantly reduced in all cultivars with and without mycorrhiza grown at 60 mM than in those grown at 0 mM and 30 mM.Proline contents indicated a progressive increase with the elevation of NaCl concentration stress.The proline contents in the mycorrhiza-inoculated cultivars were significantly higher than those in the non-inoculated cultivars.On the other hand,all cultivars with and without mycorrhiza underwent senescence within four weeks of growth at salinity concentrations of 90 mM and 120 mM.Therefore,relatively low salinity must be maintained to achieve high growth rates and gas exchanges of these inoculated cultivars.

Geographic patterns of genetic diversity and fertility restoration ability of Asian and African origin pearl millet populations

A set of 45 diverse Asian and African origin/bred populations of pearl millet were investigated multi-locationally for morphological traits including grain yield and assessed for their fertility restoration ability on three cytoplasmic male sterility(CMS) systems in two contrasting seasons. Significant genetic variation was found for all the yield linked traits. Multivariate analysis for grain yield and its component traits grouped these populations into five clusters. Most of the Asian origin populations grouped into single cluster(Cluster III) and separated from the rest of the African origin populations indicating the presence of correspondence between clustering pattern and geographical origin of the populations. Clusters dominated with Asian populations(As-As) had linkages with early flowering, short plant height, more number of tillers, small and thin panicles, small seeded and low grain yield compared to the clusters dominated by African populations(Af-Af) or African origin and Asian bred(Af-As) populations.Genetically related populations having common parentage were found grouped in same clusters.Fertility restoration/maintainer frequency of 45 populations on three diverse CMS systems revealed that overall fertility restoration frequency was highest for A1(86%) followed by A4(37%) and for A5(7%) CMS system. Five populations were identified as potential sources for developing maintainer lines for all three CMS systems and eight populations were identified specifically for A;and A;CMS systems. A set of 11 and four populations were identified for restorer line development exclusively for A;and A;CMS system,respectively. Six populations were identified for the development of dual restorers for both A;and A;CMS system.

Biodiversity of Pearl Millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] in Southern Algeria (Hoggar Region)

Despite the areas restriction reserved for pearl millet cultivation in Hoggar region, there is an important diversity, which has occupied an essential place in the inhabitants’ diet. For a better knowledge of its biodiversity, seven sites were prospected during the plant maturation period. The morphological and cytological study was undertaken on the basis of the descriptors parameters of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). The most widely varied variables were the Height of the Plant (HP), Stem Diameter (ST), Panicle size;Length (PL), Width (PW) and Color (PC). While very low variation was noted in 3rd leave dimensions;Leaf Length (LL), Leaf Width (LW), Number of Nodes (NN) and Seed Form (SF). Therefore, local millet (MLH.epc, MLH.Z1) and some domesticated (MDH. Saf, MDH.S) appeared as the best groups, based on their panicle characters and seed nutritional quality. Agro-morphological changes detected in this study, show that the majority of millet domesticated (MDH. Saf. P, MDH. Sepl) are generally, classified in second place and used as fodder in the Hoggar region.

Effect of Moisture Content and Feed Rate on Size Reduction of Pearl Millet

Pearl millet at various moisture content （6.2, 9.4 and 12.3%, d.b.） and feed rates （3, 6 and 9 kg/h） was ground using hammer mill and its physical properties viz. arithmetic mean diameter, geometric mean diameter, thousand grain weight, aspect ratio, specific surface area, surface area and bulk density were studied. Sieve analysis results showed that the increase in moisture content produced more medium sized particles with decreased percent weight retained in pan. Bond＇s work index, Kick＇s constant and average particle size were increased with the decrease in total surface area at higher moisture levels. The highest energy （2.34 KWh/kg） was consumed for 12.3% moisture content. Various grinding characteristics were significantly affected by moisture content and feed rate either individually or in combination and correlated in terms of Bond＇s work index, Kick＇s constant, total surface area, average particle size, effectiveness of milling and bulk density. Milling loss was found to be higher at lower moisture level and decreased with the increase of moisture content as well as feed rate. The loose and compact bulk density was ranged between 46.8-199.5 kg m^-3and 53.5-254.1 kg m^-3, respectively among the entire sieve fractions. Water absorption capacity increased with the decrease in particle size,

Optimization and Shelf-Life Evaluation of Pearl Millet Based Halwa Dry Mix

Indian traditional sweet dish i.e. halwa was developed from pearl millet grains. Pearl millet grains （Pennisetum typhoides var. PHB-2168） were steamed for 20 min at 1.05 kg cm^2 in order to minimize lipase activity, total phenols, phytic acid and tannins content. Steamed grains were dried （12 ± 0.5% moisture content）, pearled, milled, sieved through sieve opening size of 0.234 mm and were used for study. Central composite rotatable design （CCRD） with three independent variables i.e. vanaspati, sugar and water for rehydration were used to design the experiments. Sensory responses and rehydration ratio were used to study the individual and interactive effects of variables. Sensory score for colour varied from taste 6.3-7.9, mouth feel 6.4-7.8, overall acceptability （OAA） 6.5-7.9 and rehydration ratio （RR） from 1.4 to 2.3. All the responses fitted into quadratic equation with R2 〉 0.80. Halwa dry mix was also evaluated for stability in polyethylene pouches at ambient conditions and the peroxide and free fatty acids value were 21.35 meqO2 kg^-1 fat, 0.55% （oleic acid）, respectively after 6 months of storage. Based on compromise optimization, optimum levels of the ingredients recommended with 86.4% desirability were： vanaspati 38.6 g 100 g^-1 pearl millet semolina （PMS）, sugar 88.7 g 100 g^-1 PMS and water for rehydration 151 mL 100 g^-1 dry mix.

Evaluation of Germplasm of Pearl Millet(Penissetum glaucum L.)for Agronomic,Physiological and Biochemical Traits under Semi-arid Conditions of Hamelmalo

A field experiment was conducted at the experimental farm of Hamelmalo Agricultural College during summer 2017,to evaluate the agronomic,physiological,and biochemical performance of the collected Eritrean germplasm of pearl millet.A total of 16 accessions were tested,out of which 2 were improved varieties included as a check.The experiment was laid out in 4 x 4 Simple Lattice Design with Randomized Block using 4 replications with a gross plot size of 3.0 m x 1.2 m,row to row spacing of 75 cm and plant to plant spacing of 30 cm.The data collected were Agronomic parameters(growth,development,yield,and yield contributing characters);Physiological parameters(Relative water content and Water Use Efficiency);and Biochemical parameters(crude fat,crude fiber,protein content,TSS,and ash content).The data were analyzed using GENSTAT software and correlation analysis was worked to see the positive and negative contribution of agronomic,physiological,and biochemical attributes.The results of the study showed that Bariyay908 and Kona being statistically at par with Bariyay 910,Hagaz,Zibedi,Shleti,Delkata,Tokroray,and Kunama produced significantly higher grain yield.However,among these Baryay908 because of its superior agronomic characteristics,lower incidence of downy mildew,relatively higher water use efficiency and higher crude protein content were found to be comparatively superior to the check improved varieties Kona and Hagaz.Grain yield has shown a positive and significant correlation with harvest index,number of seeds per panicle,panicle length,leaf area and water use efficiency.These promising accessions need to be further tested for future breeding programs to develop varieties higher in productivity and resistant to downy mildew under semi-arid conditions of Eritrea.

Effect of germination on the nutritional quality of Pearl millet

Changes in proximate composition, trypsin inhibitor activity, phytic acid, tannins, in vitro protein digestibility and amino acids content of Pearl millet were investigated after germination for 5 days. Germination significantly increased protein content of pearl millet, with a parallel decrease in lipid and carbohydrates. Trypsin inhibitor activity and the phytic acid content showed significant decrease whereas tannin content increased after 5 days germination. In vitro protein digestibility （IVPD） was significantly decreased with germination, suggesting that tannins may be responsible for enzymes inhibition. Amino acid analysis revealed significant increase in essential amino acids and none essential amino acids.

Physiological and Biochemical Basis of Water-Deficit Stress Tolerance in Pearl Millet Hybrid and Parents

The present investigation was aimed to understand the physiological and biochemical basis of water-deficit stress tolerance in pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] hybrid ICMH 356 and its parents ICMR 356 (♂) and ICMB 88004 (♀) in response to and recovery from drought stress and also to comprehend crop adaptation under dryland conditions. A field experiment was conducted in a split plot design with moisture levels as the main plot and genotypes as the sub plots. A comparative analysis of hybrid and parents under well-watered and water-deficit stress conditions revealed that the hybrid was superior over the parents in terms of leaf water relations, excised leaf water retention capacity, accumulation of compatible solutes, photosynthesis, membrane stability index and antioxidative enzyme viz., superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and guaiacol peroxidase (GPOX) activities. ANOVA for these parameters was also found to be significant for genotypes, treatments and their interactions at 0.01% level. Maintenance of superiority in terms of these physiological and biochemical parameters coupled with better recovery ability upon stress relief are crucial physiological mechanisms contributing to water deficit stress tolerance in pearl millet. Simple correlation coefficient analysis revealed significant positive association of yield at 0.01% level with relative water content, leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, photosynthesis, proline, total soluble sugars, free amino acids, membrane stability index, leaf area index and total biomass, while a significant negative association with solute potential and malondialdehyde content, under water-deficit stress clearly indicated that such relationships can be positively attributed to drought tolerance.

Patterns of Molecular Diversity in Current and Previously Developed Hybrid Parents of Pearl Millet [<i>Pennisetum glaucum</i>(L.) R. Br.]

ICRISAT’s pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) breeding program at Patancheru, India, has developed genetically diverse hybrid parents since 1980s. The present study investigated genetic diversity pattern between two groups of parents in this program, bred till 2004 and developed during 2004-2010. Combined analysis of 379 hybrid parents (current 166 parents and 213 previously developed hybrid parents) carried out using a set of highly polymorphic 28 SSRs detected 12.7 alleles per locus. An average of 8.5 and 8.7 SSR alleles per locus were found in previously developed and current parents, respectively, indicating marginal improvement in the levels of genetic diversity of hybrid parents in this program. Distance matrix differentiated these current and previously developed hybrid parents into 2 separate clusters, indicating infusion of new genetic variability over time as reflected by development of more genotype-specific alleles. Also, the seed and restorer parents were found clearly separated from each other in both the sets with few crossovers, indicating existence of two diverse and broad-based pools in hybrid parents of pearl millet. Restorer parents (R-lines) were found more diverse than seed parents (B-lines), as higher average gene diversity was detected among R-lines (0.70) than B-lines (0.56), though variation between B- and R-lines was found reduced in newly developed lines to 9.22% from 16.98% in previously developed lines. Results suggested that newly developed lines were as much divergent when compared with previously developed lines, indicating that current ICRISAT pearl millet breeding program was moving towards development of diverse new hybrid parental lines. The study suggested use of trait-specific donors in B- and R-lines separately to maintain sufficient genetic distance between seed and restorer breeding lines. It was pointed out to cross parents having higher genetic distance within the seed (B-lines) and restorer (R-lines) breeding programs to derive diverse and productive hybrid parental lines in future.

Effect of Intercropping Pattern on Stem Borer Infestation in Pearl Millet (<em>Pennisetum glaucum</em>L.) Grown in the Nigerian Sudan Savannah

Fields experiments were conducted at the Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Maiduguri Teaching and Research Farm, Maiduguri during 2010 and 2011 cropping seasons to investigate the effects of intercropping pattern on stem borer pest infestation in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) intercropped with ground nut (Arachis hypogea L.). A split-plot design was used to test the intercrop pattern of 1:0 ratio (sole millet), 1:1 ratio (1 millet row to 1 ground nut row), 2:1 ratio (2 millet rows to 1 ground nut row) and 1:2 ratio (1 millet row to 2 ground nut rows). The results obtained showed that the intercrop pattern of 1:2 ratio and 1:1 ratio yielded less stem borer infestation and abundance in pearl millet, and as well supported high panicle weight and grain yield. In addition to recommending either of these two intercropping patterns to pearl millet farmers for more effective stem borer pest management, results further show the need for identification of effective intercropping patterns in other cropping systems.

Intra-population genetic variance for grain iron and zinc contents and agronomic traits in pearl millet

Crop biofortification is a sustainable approach for fighting micronutrient malnutrition in the world. The estimation of variance components in genetically broad-based populations provides information about their genetic architecture, allowing the design of an appropriate biofortification breeding method for cross-pollinated crops such as pearl millet. The objective of this study was to estimate intra-population genetic variance using self(S1) and half-sib(HS) progenies in two populations, AIMP92901 and ICMR312. Field trials were evaluated in two contrasting seasons(2009 rainy and 2010 summer; otherwise called environments) in Alfisols at ICRISAT, Patancheru. Analyses of variance showed highly significant variation for S1 s and HS progenies, reflecting high within-population genetic variation for both micronutrients and other key traits. However, the HS showed narrow ranges and lower genetic variances than the S1 for all of the traits. The micronutrients were highly positively correlated in S1(r = 0.77 to 0.86; P < 0.01) and HS(r = 0.74 to 0.77; P < 0.01)progenies of both populations, implying concurrent genetic improvement for both micronutrients. The genetic variance component was different among populations for Fe and Zn contents across environments, with AIMP92901 showing a greater proportion of dominance and ICMR312 greater additive variance for these micronutrients. The estimates of variance(additive and dominance) were specific for each population, given their dependence on the additive and dominance effects of the segregating loci, which also differ among populations. The possible causes for such differences were discussed. The results showed that the expression of these micronutrients in pearl millet shows largely additive variance, so that breeding high-iron hybrids will require incorporation of these micronutrient traits into both parental lines.

Effect of Different Supplementation Levels of Soybean Flour on Pearl Millet Functional Properties

Pearl millet cultivar (Dempy) was supplemented with soybean flour to raise the protein content by 5%, 10% and 15%. Defatted soybean flour, pearl millet flour and their composite flour had varying functional properties. Water and fat absorption, bulk density, nitrogen solubility and dispersibility were higher for soybean flour compared to that of pearl millet flour. Therefore, such properties were improved significantly (P ≤ 0.05) for pearl millet with increasing the level of soybean supplementation. The emulsifying and foaming properties of pearl millet flour were poor but after supplementation with soybean they significantly (P ≤ 0.05) improved. Supplementation of pearl millet flour with soybean had no effect on least gelation concentration of millet. The implication of these results will be realized in designing protein-enriched products based on pearl millet flour, especially for pearl millet–growing regions in the under-developing countries.

Weed Control Practices and Varying Sowing Dates Effects on Seed Production of Pearl Millet (<i>Pennisetum americanum</i>L.) under Semi-Arid Environment

Peral millet being drought tolerant has substantial potential to contribute in food security ensuring the food, fodder and nutritional value in different Asian and African countries. Susceptibility to abiotic and biotic factors and low productivity are the main reasons for decreasing productivity and area of millets. In this context, evaluation of the effect of weed control practices and varying sowing dates on grain yield of kharif season grown pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum L.) was demonstrated at post graduate agriculture research station, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad during 2015. Forage pearl millet was sown at three different sowing dates i.e. mid-June, end of June and mid-July and four weed control practices viz. weedy check (no weeding), twice hoeing at 15 and 30 days after sowing (DAS), weed control using herbicides i.e. application of Atrazine (Awax 38 SC) &#64;330 g a.i. ha-1 at 15 DAS, and twice foliar applications of 10% Sorghum water extract (Sorgaab) (at 15 and 30 DAS). The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) under split plot arrangement, comprising of three replications. The treatments with varying sowing dates were randomized in main plots and weed control practices were in subplots. Results showed that the highest plant height (279.51 cm), leaf area (2777.80 cm2), fresh weight of leaves per plant (155.57 g), maximum number of grains per head (3162.0) and grain yield (3419.7 kg&middot;ha-1) were obtained in the treatment combination of 30th June sowing × twice weed hoeing (at 15 and 30 DAS) while, maximum 1000-grain weight (8.45 g) was observed in treatments where weeds were controlled by hoeing (at 15 and 30 DAS). Moreover, cultural weed control practices reduce significantly weed density, fresh and dry Wight of weeds. In sum, it is concluded that to reduce the weed-crop competition and to gain higher productivity of pearl millet, field should be weed free 20 - 45 days after sowing.

Confirmation of Pearl Millet-Napiergrass Hybrids Using EST-Derived Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) Markers

Prospects for deploying perennial grasses that are currently considered leading candidates for dedicated energy crops over large acreages are debatable because of several limitations, including vegetative propagation or small seed size, low biomass production during the first growing season, and incomplete assessments of crop invasiveness risk. Pearl Millet-Napiergrass hybrids (“PMN”;Pennisetum glaucum [L.] R. Br. × P. purpureum Schumach.), in contrast, are large-seeded, sterile feedstocks capable of high biomass production during establishment year. Novel methods are warranted for confirmation of PMN hybrids, as traditional morphological observations can be inconclusive and chromosome number determination using cytological methods is laborious and time consuming. Six putative PMN lines were produced in this study, and 10 progeny from each line were evaluated using morphological traits, seed fertility, flow cytometry, and expressed sequence tag-simple sequence repeat (EST-SSR) markers. All putative hybrid lines were sterile and failed to produce seed. The PMN hybrids could not be distinguished from either parent using flow cytometry due to highly similar nuclear genome DNA contents. A number of paternal napiergrass-specific EST-SSRs were identified for each PMN line, and four paternal-specific EST-SSRs conserved across all napiergrass accessions were selected to screen the putative PMN hybrids. These EST-SSRs confirmed that all F1 individuals analyzed were PMN hybrids. The use of paternal-specific markers therefore provides a valuable tool in the development of both “Seeded-yet-Sterile” biofuel PMN feedstocks and additional PMN cultivar-and parental species-specific markers.

Novel discovery in roles of structural variations and RWP-RK transcription factors in heat tolerance for pearl millet

Global warming adversely affects crop production worldwide.Massive efforts have been undertaken to study mechanisms regulating heat tolerance in plants.However,the roles of structural variations(SVs)in heat stress tolerance remain unclear.In a recent article,Yan et al.(Nat Genet 1-12,2023)constructed the first pan-genome of pearl millet(Pennisetum glaucum)and identified key SVs linked to genes involved in regulating plant tolerance to heat stress for an important crop with a superior ability to thrive in extremely hot and arid climates.Through multi-omics analyses integrating by pan-genomics,comparative genomics,transcriptomics,population genetics and and molecular biological technologies,they found RWP-RK transcription factors cooperating with endoplasmic reticulum-related genes play key roles in heat tolerance in pearl millet.The results in this paper provided novel insights to advance the understanding of the genetic and genomic basis of heat tolerance and an exceptional resource for molecular breeding to improve heat tolerance in pearl millet and other crops.

Considerations for gluten free foods-pearl and finger millet processing and market demand

The market demand for gluten free foods is increasing due to frequent incidences of celiac disease and increasing awareness on consumption of gluten free foods.Millets have become the major constituent of diet as they are gluten-free and also excellent sources of micro and macro nutrients such as vitamins,minerals,dietary fibers and phenolic compounds.Among various millets,the finger millet and the pearl millet are the two most important and common millet varieties grown extensively.Since,they are regarded as the staple foods of the poor and vulnerable populations,development of new products and improvements in their nutritional quality will aid in the general health of these population.Processing of millets and production of variable gluten-free ready-to-eat and nutritional supplements has increased their market value in the recent years.Furthermore,processing can also help in shelf-life extension of the millets with nutritional enrichment,expanding its markets to non-traditional millet consumers.In this context,the present review is aimed to focus on the current processing methods to develop products from the two millet varieties that are gluten free and outline their nutritional benefits.

IMPROVING FERTILIZATION METHODS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF PEARL MILLET (PENNISETUM GLAUCUM) IN WEST AFRICA: A REVIEW

West African countries are among the larger global millet producers but have low yields mainly due to the low quality of their marginal soils.The objectives of this work were to analyze the benefits and constraints of pearl millet production,to summarize the impact of different cropping systems and fertilization modes while proposing a holistic approach for sustainable production.The major constraints on millet yields are low rates or absence of fertilizers,unsuitable cropping systems,and the proliferation of pests and diseases.Intercropping with cowpea is a widely used cropping system in addition to crop rotation,monocropping and agroforestry systems.Microdosing is the best fertilization mode for West African smallholders.It is concluded that integrated systems(breeding new cultivars,intercropping and microdosing)in tied ridges or infiltration pit practices,sustained by the implementation of innovative approaches such as the‘Science and Technology Backyards’from China are a promising approach for increasing pearl millet production.In addition,policies such as land protection of the farmers and subsidies of inputs from the government and the effective involvement of farmers and extension officers are necessary in sustaining millet production in West Africa.