Dissemination of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Latin America and the Caribbean: the Cases of Peru, Chile, and Cuba

Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) arrived from China to Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1840s due to the massive migration of Chinese people to the region. In a few years, the press noticed the presence of Chinese herbalists practicing in different cities and countries regardless of the demographic weight of the Chinese community. The fascination with Chinese doctors implicated not only the press but also the literature, a phenomenon particularly observed in Cuba. In the first decades of the 20th century, the reactivation of Chinese immigration to the region fostered an anti-Chinese climate that materialized in more significant migratory restrictions and control of their businesses, such as what happened with Chinese herbalists. These herbalists who practiced inside and outside the Chinese community started to object to criticism and persecution by the conservative press and professional doctors. Despite this, Chinese doctors will continue to maintain their support of a significant number of ill persons. This work seeks to illuminate the historical relevance of TCM in Latin America and the Caribbean, focusing on the cases of Peru, Chile, and Cuba. This last country was far from China culturally and geographically, but as in many other small towns in the region, Chinese medicine presented an alternative to the treatment of illnesses.

High Individual Variability in Beak Stable Isotopes of Jumbo Squid off Peruvian Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ) Waters in the Analysis of Migratory and Foraging Ecology

Stable isotopes(δ^(13)C and δ^(15)N) have been widely used to track cephalopod habitat, migration and trophic structure. In this study, we analyzed the δ^(13)C and δ^(15)N values in 245 Dosidicus gigas beaks collected during 2009–2010 and in 2013 off Peruvian Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ) waters. High individual variation in beak stable isotopes was shown with values ranging from-19.4‰ to-15.8‰ for δ^(13)C and from 5.0‰ to 15.1‰ for δ^(15)N. A generalized additive model(GAM) showed that latitude, mantle length and distance to shelf break significantly described the isotope variation with deviance ranging from 16.6% in δ^(13)C to 36.3% in δ^(15)N. Large variability in beak δ^(13)C values for a given size and sampling station indicated that D. gigas off the Peruvian EEZ waters migrate in different ways when they occupy a large range of habitats for their ontogeny. Low baseline δ^(15)N values suggested that spatial changes in diet trophic level may be the main determinative factor in beak δ^(15)N variation. We conclude that high variability in beak δ^(15)N values for a given set of explanatory variables indicated that D. gigas is an opportunistic predator with highly diverse dietary habitats. This study further develops our knowledge of the life history of D. gigas in such a highly dynamic region.

A Comparative Study of Spatially Clustered Distribution of Jumbo Flying Squid(Dosidicus gigas)Offshore Peru

We examined spatially clustered distribution of jumbo flying squid(Dosidicus gigas) in the offshore waters of Peru bounded by 78?–86?W and 8?–20?S under 0.5?×0.5? fishing grid. The study is based on the catch-per-unit-effort(CPUE) and fishing effort from Chinese mainland squid jigging fleet in 2003–2004 and 2006–2013. The data for all years as well as the eight years(excluding El Ni?o events) were studied to examine the effect of climate variation on the spatial distribution of D. gigas. Five spatial clusters reflecting the spatial distribution were computed using K-means and Getis-Ord Gi* for a detailed comparative study. Our results showed that clusters identified by the two methods were quite different in terms of their spatial patterns, and K-means was not as accurate as Getis-Ord Gi*, as inferred from the agreement degree and receiver operating characteristic. There were more areas of hot and cold spots in years without the impact of El Ni?o, suggesting that such large-scale climate variations could reduce the clustering level of D. gigas. The catches also showed that warm El Ni?o conditions and high water temperature were less favorable for D. gigas offshore Peru. The results suggested that the use of K-means is preferable if the aim is to discover the spatial distribution of each sub-region(cluster) of the study area, while Getis-Ord Gi* is preferable if the aim is to identify statistically significant hot spots that may indicate the central fishing ground.

Molecular Characterization of Peruvian Fowl Adenovirus (FAdV) Isolates

Forty seven clinical samples of Fowl adenovirus (FAdV) associated with Inclusion Body Hepatitis (IBH) from Peruvian broilers received between July 2006 and April 2013 were genotyped using sequencing of L1 Loop of Hexon gene. All 47 clinical samples presented macroscopic and histopathology lesions consistent with IBH, and amplified a specific fragment of Hexon gene by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). A unique nucleotide sequence of 789 base pairs of Hexon gene (position 273 to 1061) was obtained in all 47 clinical samples analyzed. This sequence showed a high level of conservation in amino acid and nucleotide sequence (>99%) with a Fowl Adenovirus C serotype 4 previously identified. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis indicate no genotypic variation in Peruvian isolates. The presence of a unique genotype very closely related with genotype C1 previously reported in Peru and Ecuador (>99%), suggests the presence of FAdV C serotype 4 genotype C1 in clinical cases of IBH from Peruvian broilers.

Validation of ERA5-Land temperature and relative humidity on four Peruvian glaciers using on-glacier observations

Weather and climate conditions drive the evolution of tropical glaciers which play an important role as water reservoirs for Peruvian inhabitants in the arid coast and semi-arid Andean region.The scarcity of long-term high-quality observations over Peruvian glaciers has motivated the extensive use of reanalysis data to describe the climatic evolution of these glaciers.However,the representativeness and uncertainties of these reanalysis products over these glaciers are still poorly constrained.This study evaluates the ability of the ERA-Land reanalysis(ERAL)to reproduce hourly and monthly 2 m air temperature and relative humidity(T2m and Rh2m,respectively)over several Peruvian glaciers.We compared the ERAL with data from four on-glacier automatic weather stations(AWS),whose hourly time series were completed with nearby stations,for the period January 2017 to December 2019.Results indicates a better performance of the reanalysis for T2m(r>0.80)than for Rh2m(~0.4<r<~0.6)in all four glaciers.Concerning the observations,both parameters show a daily cycle influenced by the presence of the glacier.This influence is more prominent during the dry months when the so-called glacier damping and cooling effects are stronger.On a monthly time scale,the ERAL validation for both parameters are better in wet outer tropical sites(RMSE between±0.2℃ for T2m and between 3%-7% for Rh2m)rather than in dry outer tropical sites(RMSE between±0.2℃ for T2m and between 3%-7% for Rh2m).Among all sites considered in the study,the Rh2m bias is the highest in the Cavalca glacier(correlation of 0.81;RMSE 13%,MAE 11% and bias 8.3%)and the lowest in Artesonraju glacier(correlation of 0.96;RMSE 3%;MAE 2.3% and bias-0.8%).Based on certain considerations outlined in this paper,it is appropriate to use ERAL to characterize T2m and Rh2m conditions on Peruvian glaciers,particularly in the wet outer tropics.

Sleep quality, sleep patterns and consumption of energy drinks and other caffeinated beverages among Peruvian college students

Objectives: To evaluate sleep quality in relation to lifestyle characteristics including consumption of energy drinks and other caffeinated beverages among Peruvian college students. Methods: A total of 2458 college students were invited to complete a self-administered questionnaire that collected information about a variety of behaviors including consumption of energy drinks, caffeinated and alcoholic beverages. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was used to assess sleep quality. Logistic regression procedures were used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for poor sleep quality in relation to lifestyle characteristics. Results: A total of 965 males and 1493 female students were enrolled in the study. 52.0% of males and 58.4% of females experienced poor sleep quality (p = 0.002). Females (OR = 1.28;95% CI 1.08-1.51) and those who reported consuming ≥3 stimulant beverages per week (OR = 1.88;95% CI 1.42-2.50) had higher odds of poor sleep quality. Students who consumed 1-19 alcoholic beverages monthly (OR = 1.90;95% CI 1.46-2.49) had a higher odds of long sleep latency. Consumption of ≥3 stimulant beverages per week was associated with daytime dysfunction due to sleep loss (OR = 1.45;95% CI 1.10-1.90), short sleep duration (OR = 1.49;95% CI 1.14-1.94), and use of sleep medication (OR = 2.10;95% CI 1.35-3.28). Conclusions: Consumption of energy drinks, other caffeinated beverages and alcoholic beverages are risk factors of poor sleep quality. Increased awareness of these associations should promote interventions to improve students’ lifestyle habits, including consumption of alcoholic and caffeinated beverages, and overall health.

Resurrection of the genus Botrydium Spach(Chenopodiaceae),with a description of four new species from China,Peru and Burundi

Based on specimens from twenty-one herbaria from China and USA,as well as observations using SEM,the genus Botrydium is resurrected as Neobotrydium.It has a number of distinctive characters:the plants are covered with granular hairs and granulated globular gland-grains,strong smell,and dichasia.Neobotrydium is removed from Chenopodium.The differences between Neobotrydium and Chenopodium,as well as circumscriptions of five glandular genera,Neobotrydium,Cycloloma,Roubieva,Ambrina,and Dysphania are discussed.Neobotrydium comprises twenty species which occur in Asia,Europe,North Africa,North America to Northwest of South America and Australia.Four new species are described:Neobotrydium corniculatum and Neobotrydium ornithopodum from China,Neobotrydium peruensis from South America,and Neobotrydium burundiensis from Africa.A diagnostic key is presented.

Tectonic control on slow-moving Andean landslides in the Colca Valley,Peru

The Colca Valley in the Central Andes is a region characterized by the occurrence of large slow-moving landslides and a high level of seismic activity.In this study,we aimed to determine passive and active tectonic control on the formation of selected five large landslides in the Colca Valley and to assess geohazard associated with these features.For that purpose,we performed a post-landslide field survey,applied remote sensing techniques,and obtained eyewitness accounts.Recently,the need to understand mass movement processes in this region is even higher due to the establishment of the Colca y Volcanes de Andagua Geopark(Colca and Andagua Volcanoes Geopark).Our results suggest that the studied landslides usually represent a complex failure mechanism,dominated by translational sliding or rotational displacements,commonly associated with the formation of horst-and-graben like structures.We found a spatial correlation between the distribution of landslides and inherited fault network.The head scarps appear to be limited by the WNW-to NW-striking faults,whereas the lateral extent of some of the reported features seems to be connected with the NNE-striking normal faults,common in both,the Mesozoic strata and the Pleistocene-Holocene deposits.

Detection of dengue virus serotype 3 in Cajamarca,Peru:Molecular diagnosis and clinical characteristics

Objective:To describe and molecularly characterize an outbreak of dengue virus(DENV)infection in Cajamarca,an Andean region in Peru.Methods:A total of 359 serum samples from patients with acute febrile illness were assessed for the presence of DENV via RT-PCR,ELISA NS1,Ig M and Ig G in Cajamarca,Peru from January 2017 to June 2017.The evaluation of the different diagnostic tests and their applicability was performed.Results:Dengue virus was detected in 24.7%of samples by RTPCR.Meanwhile,serological analysis detected 30.3%positive cases via ELISA NS1 antigen,16.7%via ELISA Ig G and 9.7%via ELISA Ig M.Most of the cases corresponded to DENV-3(77.5%).The use of RT-PCR performed better in primary infections(P<0.01),while detection of ELISA Ig M performed better in secondary infections(P<0.01).The combination of NS1 and Ig M performed better than the other assays in detecting primary(92.5%)and secondary infections(96.6%).The most frequent symptoms associated with fever were headaches,myalgias,and arthralgias across all groups.Conclusions:We report an important outbreak of dengue infection caused by DENV-3 in Cajamarca,Peru.Our findings encourage the use of NS1 antigen and Ig M co-detection.These findings demonstrate an increasing expansion of DENV-3 in Peru and highlight the importance of molecular diagnosis and serotype characterization among the clinically defined dengue cases to strengthen the Peruvian epidemiological surveillance.

An atypical case of disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania peruviana in the valleys of Ancash-Peru

We present an atypical case of disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Sihuas district, located in the Andean valleys of Ancash-Peru. A 62-year-old man with no particular medical history presented multiple lesions located on the inferior abdomen, lumbar region and the right anterior thigh. Histological analysis found leishmanial amastigotes in the lesion sample, the Montenegro reaction was positive for Leishmania spp, and the polymerase chain reaction was positive for Leishmania peruviana. In conclusion, the atypical presentation of this disease may be related to the presence of an uncommon parasite strain or host immune deficiencies. The molecular identification of the etiology for disseminated leishmaniasis, will allow a better understanding of the presentation and proper treatment,as well as associated risk factors.

Properties of a Scale of Self-Care Behaviors Facing COVID-19:An Exploratory Analysis in a Sample of University Students in Huanuco,Peru

The general objective of this article was to construct and describe the psychometric properties of a scale of selfcare behaviors against COVID-19.It was a descriptive,cross-sectional,psychometric validation study of a scale created to measure self-care behaviors in relation to COVID-19 in a total sample of 333 probabilistically selected.Qualitative validity was evaluated by a review of 10 experts and quantitative validity by means of exploratory factor analysis using the principal components method.Internal consistency was measured with Cronbach’s alpha twice and the test-retest was evaluated by calculating the intraclass coefficient.The final scale consisted of 29 items.The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test of adequacy yielded a value of 0.926,and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity X^(2)=4611 with a p-value<0.001.The variance explained by the three retained factors with a total of 29 items was 50.03%.The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency evaluation yielded an initial value of 0.923 and,in a second evaluation,showed a value of 0.936.In addition,the intraclass coefficient in the test-retest yielded a value of 0.929.The instrument created and validated possessed the necessary conditions as a useful and reliable tool for measuring self-care behaviors in relation to COVID-19 in a population of university students and it is important that it can be applied in other regions of the world.

Synchronous Changes of Nitrogen and Carbon Isotopic Ratios and Nannoplankton Assemblage in Marine Sediments off Peru at 250 ka: A Role of Phytoplankton in Primary Ocean Productivity

We report the mechanism controlling changes of δ15Norg and δ13Corg values of marine organic matter, based on the change of calcareous nannoplankton assemblage during the last 500,000 years in core samples from ODP Hole 846B off Peru in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. The δ15Norg values fluctuate in a range from 2.1‰ to 6.7‰, giving an abrupt increase since about 250 ka with the averages of 3.8‰ and 5.0‰ during the older and younger periods, respectively. The δ13Corg values change in a range from ?23.5‰ to ?20.1‰ in an inverse correlation with δ15Norg values, describing an increase of average values at 250 ka as well as those of δ15Norg values. The total organic carbon content also shows averages of 0.6% and 0.3% during the younger and older periods, respectively. The numerical increase of deep dwelling species (Florisphaera profunda) of calcareous nannoplankton during the younger period in comparison with the older period indicates that these chemical and isotopic jumps synchronized with nannoplankton assemblage changes in marine sediments are caused by activity of deep dwellers in photic zone more stratified by an abrupt decline of trade wind strength on this sea area since about 250 ka. A study coupling δ15Norg and δ13Corg values and nannoplankton assemblage can be a useful method for evaluating the extent of stratification of photic zone and the roles of surface and deep dwellers of phytoplankton in producing primary organic matter.

A Review on Tectonic Record of Strain Buildup and Stress Release across the Andean Forearc along the Gulf of Guayaquil-Tumbes Basin (GGTB) near Ecuador-Peru Border

Gravimetric and geologic data show that the reactivation of the Neogene Interandean depression and/or the ~75 - 65 Ma ophiolite suture into the modern dynamic of the Andes controlled the Gulf of Guayaquil Tumbes basin (GGTB) location and evolution during the past 1.8 - 1.6 Myr at least. Depending on whether the remobilization occurred along the interandean depression or the ophiolite suture, the GGTB evolved trough pure or simple shear mechanisms, respectively. Because the GGTB exhibits an along strike tectonic asymmetry associated with a pervasive seismic gap, the simple shear solution is more likely. Tectonic inversion occurred along a mid-crust detachment (the Mid-Crust detachment hereafter) matching the ophiolite suture that accommodates the North Andean Block (NAB) northward drift. The so-called Decoupling Strip located at the shelf slope break accommodated the tensional stress rotation from N-S along the shelf area i.e. NAB-drift induced to E-W along the continental margin i.e. subduction-erosion-induced. The landward dipping Woollard detachment system located at the Upper-Lower slope boundary connects the subduction channel at depth, allowing the Upper slope to evolve independently from the Lower slope wedge. The long-term recurrence interval between earthquakes, the strong interplate coupling, and the aseismic creeping deformation acting along the main low-angle detachments i.e. the Woollard and the Mid-Crust detachments may account for the pervasive seismic gap at the GGTB area. Because the subduction channel exhibits no record of significant seismic activity, no evidence exists to establish a link between the GGTB sustained subsidence and a basin-centered asperity. Because the GGTB is a promising site of hydrocarbon resources, to understand processes at the origin of this escape-induced forearc basin has a major economic interest.

The Case for Integrative Sustainable Development Practice Based on the Minas Conga Gold-Mining Experience in Peru

Mining projects are among the most impactful development projects, and the most controversial. The Conga Mining Project, proposed by the U.S. based Newmont Mining Corporation, in partnership with Minas Buenaventura, was slated for the Cajamarca region of Peru. Since the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was completed in 2010, controversy has escalated: public protests have precipitated a political crisis for President Humala, with several ministers resigning. The proposed project would have been made located approximately 73 km northeast of the city of Cajamarca, in the northern Peruvian Andes, in the district of Sorochuco, within an area defined by four major lakes, headwaters of rivers, and wetlands. Despite findings of “no significant impact” by the 2010 EIA, the project is currently postponed indefinitely due to the public backlash, international attention, and questions of integrity surrounding environmental and social concerns. We use the Conga Mining case to interrogate business-as-usual (BAU) design, assessment, planning, implementation and monitoring practices for extractive development in Peru, and suggest alternatives. Our analysis is based on an integrative framework that is empirically based (previously developed by the authors), one with a greater likelihood of improving sustainable development and the equity of positive and negative impacts among stakeholders. Suggestions are tailored to the setting: we pay special attention to the climate-change and socio-political contexts of Peru. We seek to exploit a shifting political landscape that is resisting BAU and countering the systematic disenfranchisement of vulnerable populations by extractive resource industries. These appear to be enabling conditions to promote the adoption of a capacity building, socio-technical enterprise approach to framing and designing sustainable development projects in Peru, with implications beyond.

Peru: Promising Cooperation for Green Growth

"The 20th session of the Confer-ence of the Parties to the UNFCCC(The United Nations Framework Con-vention on Climate Change)is expect-ed to take place in December 2014 in Peru,"Peruvian Ambassador Gonzalo Gutierrez Reinel said."China is going to play a significant role at the confer-ence,since green growth is the

Geographic Models of Socioeconomic and Cognitive Development: A Test in Peru

Few explanations of geography’s influence on economic and cognitive development have been proposed.This study was purported to test three development models based on absolute latitude(AL)and additionally addressed altitude above sea level and the particular case of the Amazonía in Peru.Information on 1468 Peruvian districts was obtained from Peru’s Ministry of Education and United Nations Development Program’s Human Development Report.The data were best fitted by ad hoc path models which combined AL with altitude and took different forms in the Amazonía and remainder of Peru.AL+altitude explained education+health,and income,through cognitive ability in the Amazonía.In the remainder of Peru,AL–altitude explained income and cognitive ability through education+health,with an additional,weak but significant,direct AL→cognitive ability path.The findings add to evidence suggesting the mediation of UV radiation in the relationship between latitude and development.

Sensitization Properties of Propolis and Balsam of Peru in Guinea Pig Maximization Test(GPMT)

Introduction: Propolis is used in Poland as an active ingredient of some drugs administered externally, dietary supplements and cosmetics. According to the literature, propolis is a non-toxic and safe substance, although it may cause allergic contact dermatitis. Aim: The aim of this study was to assess the allergenic properties of propolis and Balsam of Peru. Material and methods: The study was conducted according to the OECD Guideline for testing of chemicals-Skin sensitization with use of Guinea pig maximization test (GPMT). Guinea pigs have similar sensitivity to allergens as human body. Sensitization properties of propolis were tested in comparison with sensitization properties of Balsam of Peru because of the possibility of cross-reaction between those two substances. Results: The skin of guinea pigs in the propolis group showed no visible change compared to the control group during the first (48 h) and second observation (72 h). The skin of guinea pigs from Balsam of Peru group showed discrete erythema in only one case at the first observation (8.33% of the animals). During the second observation, no visible changes were observed compared to the control group. Conclusions: Guinea pig maximization test showed no sensitizing properties of propolis and weak sensitizing properties of Balsam of Peru in concentration of 5%.

Empathy Levels of Dentistry Students in Peru and Argentina

Objectives: To compare the empathy of students in two faculties of Dentistry in Peru and Argentina, three factors were considered: universities, academic year and gender. Material and Methods: Empathy matrices in Dentistry students were measured using the Jefferson Scale of Empathy, culturally validated in Peru and Argentina. Empathy data were compared among and within the faculties tested using a three-factor analysis of variance (model III), a Duncan test, and a discriminant analysis. The level of significance used was less than 0.05. Results: We found that differences existed between the students tested. The comparison between the levels of empathy in the studied factors and the presence of unexplained variance showed that empathy was able to differentiate populations. Conclusions: The results indicate variability in the empathy values associated with the factors studied. The discriminant test confirms the differences between faculties revealed by the data matrix resulting from the JSE. These differences are possibly due to the effect of educational and social factors.

Sino-American Corporation in Peru

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Telecentres in Mountain Regions-A Peruvian Case Study of the Impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Remoteness and Exclusion

Communities in developing country mountain areas,in part due to their remoteness,find themselves excluded from social,political and economic systems; and excluded from access to resources. This paper aims to study the impact of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on remoteness and exclusion. It utilises two models - the resource movement framework,and the "information chain" - to analyse a telecentre in one district of mountainous Huancavelica,Peru's poorest region,set in the high Andes. It finds ICTs enabling new and positive resource flows for the two key user groups:teenaged school students and young farmers. These help to maintain social networks. They also support information searches that have improved agricultural practice where other information chain resources have been available. But non-use and ineffective use of the telecentre are found where information chain resources are lacking. ICTs have some impacts on intangible elements of remoteness. In this particular example,they also offer access to some previously-excluded resources. But they have not really addressed the systematic exclusions faced by mountain communities. And they so far appear to be a technology of inequality; favouring those residents who begin with better resource endowments.The paper concludes by offering some recommendations for mountain ICT project practice.