Neutron Star Magnetic Field as for Nonzero Photon Mass

We investigate the neutron star magnetic field by the relative mean-field theory, where the photon effective mass depending on baryon density of charged particles is nonzero. This field is produced by star itself, which is the function of baryon density. The result fits the observations.

A New Theory of the Essence and Mass of Photon

Many properties of a single photon, such as density, rest mass, and orbital angular momentum, are still unknown. In a previous study, the photon was presented as a superfluid prolate spheroid structure, with a long-axis radius, short-axis radius, and volume, embodied with two spins—transversal and longitudinal—which are responsible for the three-dimensional helical trajectory of the electromagnetic wave. In this study, the rest mass, density, and energy of photon are mathematically derived, and the relationship between the radius of photon and its frequency is demonstrated. In addition, the difference between the Compton and de Broglie wavelengths is clarified. The calculated density, volume, and rest mass of photon agree with previous experimental results. The photon’s simultaneous longitudinal and transversal spins are moving forces of longitudinal and transversal trajectories, which are the origin of the three-dimensional helix shape of the electromagnetic field. A new mechanism for the photon movement is proposed, and the reason for the zero mass moving photon is revealed;a traveling photon in space exhibits zero mass because its boundaries demonstrate zero relative velocity with the surrounding vacuum. The orbital angular momentum of photon is described using similar macroscopic rotation concepts and applying hydrodynamics laws. A rotating photon is endowed with an angular velocity vector whose magnitude measures the speed with which the radius of the principal axis sweeps an angle, and whose direction indicates the principal axis of rotation and is given by the right-hand rule. The deviation angle is calculated using trigonometric functions, and the origin of the Lorenz factor is revealed.

Further Support of the Reliability of the Limit on Photon Mass Given by the Rotating Torsion Balance Experiment

We consider there is a vacancy in the plasma in the solar system,and calculate the vector potential produced by the magnetic field frozen in the plasma.The result shows that,in the vacancy,the vector potential produced by the magnetic field frozen in the plasma is much less than the large scale cosmic vector potential.This means if our earth is in such a vacancy,the total vector potential on the surface of the earth is dominated by the cosmic magnetic vector potential,which gives a further support of the reliability of the limit on photon mass given by rotating torsion balance experiment [Phys.Rev.Lett.90(2003) 081801].

Experimental Proof of Mass in Photon

The present work deals with the mass of photon which creates a force at the contact point of reflection resulting in slight deviation of photon from its path after reflection. Only the mass of photon can cause deviation due to inertial force. If photon has no mass, it cannot deviate. It is also found that this deviation of photon depends on the angle of polarization plane of laser light with respect to reflecting mirror. Such variation in the angle of deviation by the plane of polarization proves that the mass of photon is neither in the centre of photon nor distributed uniformly but located off-centre (away from the centre of photon). This work proves that photon has mass and the most important part of this work is to discover that the mass of the photon is located off-centre (away from the centre of photon). This discovery explains Wave Particle Duality of electromagnetic radiations.

The Mass and Size of Photons in the 5-Dimensional Extended Space Model

We propose the generalization of Einstein’s special theory of relativity (STR). In our model, we use the (1 + 4)-dimensional space G, which is the extension of the (1 + 3)-dimensional Minkowski space M. As a fifth additional coordinate, the interval S is used. This value is constant under the usual Lorentz transformations in M, but it changes when the transformations in the extended space G are used. We call this model the Extended space model (ESM). From a physical point of view, our expansion means that processes in which the rest mass of the particles changes are acceptable now. In the ESM, gravity and electromagnetism are combined in one field. In the ESM, a photon can have a nonzero mass and this mass can be either positive or negative. It is also possible to establish in the frame of ESM connection between mass of a particle and its size.

Mass Increase with Strong and Gravitational Potentials, and Mass Defect with Electromagnetic Potential

The proposal is “mass increases due to strong and gravitational potentials, while it decreases due to Electromagnetic potential”. This proposal explains the big difference in mass between hadrons (protons, neutrons, & mesons) and their components (quarks), mass difference between nucleus and its individual components (protons and neutrons), massless of gamma photons, abnormal masses of mesons and bosons, and the excess in galaxy masses (dark matter). Also, this proposal shows the exact relation between mass and energy: Strong Potential=−3.04mc2| Electric Potential |=−5.57×10−3mc2Gravitational Potential=−1.22×10−7mc2where m represents the excess in mass due to strong potential, or gravitational potential and represents the decrease in mass due to electromagnetic potential. Released energy here equals potential energy and doesn’t equal decrease in mass using the formula E = mc2. Released energy is transferred to heat, photons, kinetic energy… Finally, proposal will try to describe the relation between photon energy and mass of its components using the general equation of kinetic energy: Photon Energy=1/2mc2m is the sum of the individual masses of its components, while the total mass of photon is zero.

Correlation in Gamma Ray Burst Time Delays between Pairs of Radio Photons

We present a pilot study of time delays Δt in four GRB Radio Afterglow emissions, i.e., delays in the arrival times of radio waves of different frequencies emanating from eight GRB Radio Afterglows. Unlike in most studies on this phenomenon, we do not assume that this time delay is due to the Photon being endowed with a non-zero mass, but that this may very well be due to the interstellar space being a cold rarefied cosmic plasma, which medium’s Electrons interact with the electric component of the Photon, thus generating tiny currents that lead to dispersion, hence, a frequency (v) dependent speed of Light where this speed scales off as v-1. The said interaction is such that, lower frequency Photons will propagate at lower speeds than higher frequency Photons thus leading to the observed time delays in the arrivals times of Photons of different frequencies. In reasonable accord with the proposed model, we find that for four of these GRB afterglows, there is a strong unsolicited correlation between the observed time delays and the frequency. If this model can be corroborated by a large enough data set, there is hope that this same model might lead to a better understanding of the observed time delays in GRBs.

Measurement of mass attenuation coefficients,effective atomic numbers,and electron densities for different parts of medicinal aromatic plants in low-energy region

The mass attenuation coefficients(l/q) for different parts(root, flower, stem, and leaf) of three medicinal aromatic plants(Teucrium chamaedrys L. subsp. sinuatum,Rheum ribes, and Chrysophthalmum montanum) were measured using an ^(241)Am photon source in a stable geometry and calculated using the Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code System-extended(MCNPX) code and the WinXCOM program. The experimental and theoretical MCNPX and WinXCOM values exhibited good agreement.The measured mass attenuation coefficient values were then used to compute the effective atomic number(Z_(eff))and electron density(N_E) of the samples. The results reveal that S1-S(stem of Teucrium chamaedrys L. subsp. sinuatum) has the highest values of l/q and Zeff.

Accurate Solution to the Gravitational Bending of Starlight by a Massive Object

An exact solution to the gravitational bending of starlight is derived without resorting to general relativity. The accurate solution can be reduced to the result as obtained by general relativity under special conditions. For objects with a larger mass and a smaller radius, the approximated result as obtained by Schwartzchild’s metric based on general relativity will be invalid. A century-long misunderstanding about the deflection of light by gravity based on the classical theory will also be clarified.

Hypotheses on Vacuum and Elementary Particles: The Friedmann-Planck Micro-Universe, Friedmann and Schwarzschild Photon Spheres

This article presents the hypothesis that the vacuum is endowed with a quantum structure;the vacuum particles would be Friedmann-Planck micro-universes. For this, the article introduces a quantization of a closed Friedmann universe, then a quantization of the photon spheres filling this universe. This approach gives a numerical value consistent with cosmological measurements for the current dark energy density of our Universe. Next, the article takes the content of a model published in Physics Essays in 2013 [1], assuming that elementary particles are Schwarzschild photon spheres;these could be derived from the Friedmann photon spheres composing the vacuum particles. It is further recalled that the model presents a unified structure of elementary particles and allows us to calculate the value of the elementary electric charge as well as the mass of the elementary particles.

Photon Gas Is the Medium of Electromagnetic Waves

The aim of this paper is to find the carrier or medium of electromagnetic waves that has been searched for many years. The thermal radiation is composed of the shot noise and the wave noise, so the Planck formula can be separated mathematically into two parts. Assume every photon has the same proper magnetic moment and an equal rest mass which has been estimated from the cosmic background temperature in space where the photon gas is at an open state of thermal equilibrium. The magnetic-electric dynamic equation is established that means magnetic curl caused electric change, and the electric-magnetic dynamic equation is established that means electric curl caused magnetic change. After the wave equation is caught, it is clear that the photon gas is the medium of electromagnetic waves in vacuum.

Star Mass Inertia Dictates the Speed of Light

This paper indicated that Newton’s law of gravitation is a statistical relation of two adjacent objects with a distance and Einstein’s general relativity shows the internal connection of material distribution through space-time warping in our universe so general relativity is referred as a gravity theory. Here the paper gives an extension of general relativity in the sense of the metric theory of gravity which is consistent with Einstein’s equivalence principle and generates a weak field approximation which extends Newtonian dynamics. Thus, the extended theory of gravity can infer that the light has a speed limit of photon escaping the mass inertia of a star.

Xe-Kr laser induced collisional ionization system and experimental preparation of its initial state: Four-photon resonant excitation

This paper proposes a novel one-colour Xe-Kr laser induced collisional ionization system. Considering the level scheme of the system, it finds that the initial state of the reaction--the four 4f levels with even J of Xe-can be prepared through method of four-photon resonant excitation by dye laser with wavelength of -440 nm. Absorption of an additional photon （the transfer laser） of the same wavelength will complete the laser induced collisional ionization process. The resonance enhanced ionization spectrum of Xe by four laser photons at -440nm is measured through time-of-flight mass spectrometry, this aims at the preparation of the initial state of the system proposed. The Stark broadening of the measured spectrum is observed and consistent with the previous study. Analysis of the measured resonance ionization spectrum implies the feasibility of -440 nm four-photon resonant excitation of the initial 4f state of the Xe Kr system proposed in this paper, which prepares for a further experiment of laser induced collisional ionization.

Refinement of the Proposed Gamma-Ray Burst Time Delay Model

This paper is the second instalment in our study of the observed time delay in the arrival times of radio photons emanating from Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs). The mundane assumption in contemporary physics as to the cause of these pondersome time delays is that they are a result of the photon being endowed with a non-zero mass. While we do not rule out the possibility of a non-zero mass for the photon, our working assumption is that the major cause of these time delays may very well be that these photons are travelling in a rarefied cosmic plasma in which the medium’s electrons interact with the electric component of the Photon, thus generating tiny currents that lead to dispersion, hence, a frequency-dependent speed of Light (FDSL). In the present instalment, we “improve” on the model presented in the first instalment by dropping the assumption that the resultant pairs of these radio photons leave the shock front simultaneously. The new assumption of a non-simultaneous— albeit systematic—emission of these photon pairs allows us to obtain a much more convincing and stronger correlation in the time delay. This new correlation allows us to build a unified model for the four GRBs in our sample using a relative distance correction mechanism. The new unified model allows us to obtain as our most significant result a value for the frequency equivalence of the interstellar medium (ISM)’s conductance ν* ~ 1.500 ± 0.009 Hzand also an independent distance measure to the GRBs where we obtain for our four GRB samples an average distance of: ~69.40 ± 0.10, 40.00 ± 0.00, 58.40 ± 0.40, and 86.00 ± 1.00 Mpc, for GRB 030329, 980425, 000418 and 021004 respectively.

Inertial and Gravitational Mass Described by Their Electromagnetic Processes

In the present paper, gravitational and inertial mass are described as one and the same electromagnetic mechanism in atoms and particles. Previous reports have described the dynamic electromagnetic processes of the atom, the photon and gravity. Results from these reports have been compiled into a theoretical model. The theoretical model describes the mechanism creating gravitational and inertial mass. The study also displays how the electromagnetic characteristics of gravitational and inertial mass and the mechanism are measured.

The Common Topological Origin of Waves in Quantum and Photon Physics as Well as in the Cosmic Redshift

It is shown that the well-known wave behaviors of material particles and photons, as well as the newly discovered wave-like structures in the cosmic redshift, are related phenomena that follow conclusively when senders and receivers of photons or material particles are topologically located in manifolds with a dimension difference of one. In this context, the inertial mass of the proton and the electron, their spin properties and the cause of time are derived from basic topological and physical laws. In addition, the quantum geometric basis of relativistic time dilation, the basis of the relativistic energy-momentum relationship and the relationship between energy and time are shown. Finally, it is shown that a curved cosmic space causes a distance-dependent reddening of light and the associated apparent escape velocity of distant cosmic objects, and that this also leads to a topologically conditioned wave structure of this redshift.

百千瓦级空间核反应堆屏蔽优化研究

屏蔽体尺寸和重量对空间核反应堆和核动力航天器性能有着重要影响,因而屏蔽设计优化是空间核动力系统设计的关键。本文以JIMO项目反应堆为对象,在铍-碳化硼-钨-氢化锂分层组合屏蔽方案的基础上,考虑到辐照剂量的径向分布,采用蒙特卡罗方法计算了负载处辐照剂量和氢化锂中子剂量,分析了屏蔽设计原理,并提出了分步优化方法以实现屏蔽优化。根据结果分析,调整了铍和碳化硼的厚度比例、钨半径及布置位置,获得了优化的屏蔽方案,在满足屏蔽要求的基础上质量减少了98.41 kg。提出的屏蔽方案及设计流程可为空间核电源屏蔽设计优化提供参考。

超声骨密度检测在骨质疏松症诊断中的应用

目的分析广东佛山北滘镇中老年居民的骨量情况,评价超声骨密度检测在骨质疏松症诊断中的价值。方法选取2022年8月至2023年10月于佛山市顺德区第三人民医院体检的200例北滘镇中老年居民,使用双能X线吸收测定法(DXA)对体检者腰椎进行测量,同时使用定量超声系统(QUS)对体检者右侧桡骨远端进行测量,采用Pearson分析两种测量值的相关性,并以DXA-T值作为骨质疏松症的诊断标准,通过绘制受试者工作特征曲线(ROC)评价桡骨QUS-T值对骨质疏松症的诊断价值。结果200例体检者中有33.0%罹患骨质疏松,47.0%骨量减少,且随着年龄的增长,骨量逐渐减少(趋势χ^(2)=124.779,P<0.001)。Pearson相关分析显示,桡骨QUS-T值与DXA-T值呈正相关(r=0.183,P<0.05)。ROC曲线显示,桡骨QUS-T值诊断骨质疏松症的曲线下面积为0.542,最佳截断值为﹣2.7,敏感度和特异度分别为72.7%、38.8%。男性受试者桡骨QUS-T值诊断骨质疏松症的曲线下面积为0.708,最佳截断值为﹣2.7,敏感度为62.8%,特异度为66.7%;女性受试者桡骨QUS-T值诊断骨质疏松症的曲线下面积为0.630,最佳截断值为﹣1.03,敏感度为87.0%,特异度为47.9%。结论广东佛山北滘镇中老年居民的骨质疏松症发病率高于全国平均水平。尽管QUS骨密度检测结果不能作为骨质疏松的诊断标准,但在社区筛查中有较高的参考价值,值得推广应用。

含硼矿物及环氧树脂的光子质量衰减系数

以我国辽宁东部地区特有的含硼矿物、含硼废弃物和环氧树脂为对象,理论计算了原矿、含硼铁精矿粉、富硼渣、普通硼泥和环氧树脂等5种材料对1 keV～100 GeV能量范围的光子质量衰减系数,为放射性同位素源、反应堆和粒子加速器外围建筑材料的屏蔽设计提供依据。结果表明:含硼矿物的添加显著改变了基体环氧树脂对光子的质量衰减系数,矿物在1 keV～0.1 MeV以光电效应为主的能量范围内对光子的质量衰减系数变化较大,所含元素的K层特征吸收限使得矿物对光子的质量衰减系数突变增加;在0.1～10 MeV以康普顿效应为主的能量范围内矿物对光子的质量衰减系数缓慢变化,其中环氧树脂的质量衰减系数较矿物的稍高;在以共轭电子对效应为主的10 MeV～100 GeV光子能量范围内矿物对光子的质量衰减系数先减少后增加,含硼铁精矿粉是该能量范围内最佳的光子吸收体。

光子静止质量与雷达回波延迟

讨论了弯曲时空下,当光子静止质量不为零时引力的时间延迟效应,即光子静止质量对在地球上发射再从行星上反射回来的掠过太阳的雷达回波延迟的影响.计算了当光子静止质量不为零时对原有电磁波运动方程的影响,并将实验所得数据与理论计算数据之间的误差归结为光子静止质量引起,由火星回波延迟的实验数据给出光子静止质量上限为2.2×10-43g.同时讨论了实验中误差的来源,并提出了进一步提高实验精度和获得光子静止质量更高上限的途径.