The Substructure of Elementary Particles Demonstrated by the I-Theory

Present studies in physics assume that elementary particles are the building blocks of all matter, and that they are zero-dimensional objects which do not occupy space. The new I-Theory predicts that elementary particles do indeed have a substructure, three dimensions, and occupy space, being composed of fundamental particles called I-particles. In this article we identify the substructural pattern of elementary particles and define the quanta of energy that form each elementary particle. We demonstrate that the substructure comprises two classes of quanta which we call “attraction quanta” and “repulsion quanta”. We create a model that defines the rest-mass energy of each elementary particle and can predict new particles. Lastly, in order to incorporate this knowledge into the contemporary models of science, a revised periodic table is proposed.

Angular insensitive nonreciprocal ultrawide band absorption in plasma-embedded photonic crystals designed with improved particle swarm optimization algorithm

Using an improved particle swarm optimization algorithm(IPSO)to drive a transfer matrix method,a nonreciprocal absorber with an ultrawide absorption bandwidth and angular insensitivity is realized in plasma-embedded photonic crystals arranged in a structure composed of periodic and quasi-periodic sequences on a normalized scale.The effective dielectric function,which determines the absorption of the plasma,is subject to the basic parameters of the plasma,causing the absorption of the proposed absorber to be easily modulated by these parameters.Compared with other quasi-periodic sequences,the Octonacci sequence is superior both in relative bandwidth and absolute bandwidth.Under further optimization using IPSO with 14 parameters set to be optimized,the absorption characteristics of the proposed structure with different numbers of layers of the smallest structure unit N are shown and discussed.IPSO is also used to address angular insensitive nonreciprocal ultrawide bandwidth absorption,and the optimized result shows excellent unidirectional absorbability and angular insensitivity of the proposed structure.The impacts of the sequence number of quasi-periodic sequence M and collision frequency of plasma1ν1 to absorption in the angle domain and frequency domain are investigated.Additionally,the impedance match theory and the interference field theory are introduced to express the findings of the algorithm.

The Essence of Microscopic Particles and Quantum Theory

In the paper, we have given the quantum equation of the gravitational field intensity Eg (r, t) and electric field intensity E (r, t) for the material particles, since the gravitational field intensity Eg (r, t) and electric field intensity E (r, t) is in direct proportion to the distribution function ψ (r, t) of particle spatial position (wave function), these quantum equations are natural converted into the Schrodinger equation. In addition, we have proposed the new model about the photon and matter particles. For all particles, they are not point particles, but they have a very small volume. The photon has a vibration electric field in its very small volume. The neutral material particle, such as neutron, it has a vibration gravitational field in its very small volume. For the charge material particles, such as electron and proton, they have both vibration gravitational field and vibration electric field in their very small volume. With the model, we can explain the diffraction and interference of single slit and multiple-slit for the single photon and material particles, the volatility of all particles come from the superposition of their respective vibration field. After the vibration field of particle superposition, it shows up as a particle property. On this basis, We have obtained some new results, and realized the unification of both wave and particle and field and matter.

Photon Is Shortened Name for Electromagnetic Field but Not a Particle

We well know that photon concept is self-contradictory because we assume that it is a particle with wave properties. This contradiction insensibly spoils our subconscious thinking. It is shown in the article that photon has no 4-coordinates for work within atomic quantum electrodynamics (QED). This implies that actually photon is not a particle. I draw attention that QED is the most precise theory developed by humankind. It is noticed that terms photon and electromagnetic field in practice are in use as synonyms. These results validate the title of the article and exempt us from contradictions within quantum mechanics.

Hypotheses on Vacuum and Elementary Particles: The Friedmann-Planck Micro-Universe, Friedmann and Schwarzschild Photon Spheres

This article presents the hypothesis that the vacuum is endowed with a quantum structure;the vacuum particles would be Friedmann-Planck micro-universes. For this, the article introduces a quantization of a closed Friedmann universe, then a quantization of the photon spheres filling this universe. This approach gives a numerical value consistent with cosmological measurements for the current dark energy density of our Universe. Next, the article takes the content of a model published in Physics Essays in 2013 [1], assuming that elementary particles are Schwarzschild photon spheres;these could be derived from the Friedmann photon spheres composing the vacuum particles. It is further recalled that the model presents a unified structure of elementary particles and allows us to calculate the value of the elementary electric charge as well as the mass of the elementary particles.

Influence of colloidal particle transfer on the quality of self-assembling colloidal photonic crystal under confined condition

The relationship between colloidal particle transfer and the quality of colloidal photonic crystal（CPC） is investigated by comparing colloidal particle self-assembling under the vertical channel（VC） and horizontal channel（HC） conditions.Both the theoretical analyses and the experimental measurements indicate that crystal quality depends on the stability of mass transfer.For the VC,colloidal particle transfer takes place in a stable laminar flow,which is conducive to forming high-quality crystal.In contrast,it happens in an unstable turbulent flow for the HC.Crystals with cracks and an uneven surface formed under the HC condition can be seen from the images of a field emission scanning electron microscope（SEM） and a three-dimensional（3D） laser scanning microscope（LSM）,respectively.

Determination of Photon and Elementary Particles Rest Masses Using Maxwell’s Equations and Generalized Potential Dependent Special Relativity

The nature and origin of the photon and elementary rest masses are some of the challeng-ing problems that physics face. The approaches used to solve these problems are complex and time-consuming. Specifically, the photon rest mass pays attention to theoretical physi-cists. Many experimental works show that the photon rest mass is non zero. This problem can be solved using generalized potential dependent special relativity, which has been de-rived using simple arguments, and Maxwell’s equations, besides the conventional Einstein energy-momentum relation. The results obtained show that the rest mass of photons and elementary particles are strongly dependent on the vacuum energy and a universal con-stant. This result conforms with the models that predict time decaying vacuum energy as-sociated with production of smaller rest mass particles followed by larger masses. The two potential dependent mass expressions conform with the cosmological models that suggest the photon is generated first by assuming the universe consisting of total constant vacuum with decaying cosmological part and mass generating part. Using Maxwell’s equations, beside plank and De Broglie hypothesis together with special relativity energy-momentum relation the photon rest mass is estimated. It was shown that the photon rest mass is ex-tremely small compared to the electron mass.

Photon and Elementary Particles Theory

At present, the research of single-photon is a hot topic, it has been widely applied in quantum measurement, quantum entanglement and quantum information. In this paper, we have proposed a new single photon theory, which is the vector potential A rotation at the vertical motion direction of photon, it can produce the microscopic electric field and magnetic field, and they satisfy the Maxwell equations. We have calculated photon spin, momentum, energy, and found there are left-handed and right-handed photon. In addition, we study the multi-photon theory and the dynamics theory between photons interaction. On this basis, we have further given the compound structures of electron, proton, neutron, neutrino, π meson, dark matter with the photon structural theory, and calculated their mass, charge and spin.

Effect of Doppler Shifts on Photon and Particle Flux of Beams

Reasons are given for a Doppler shift on the number of observed (sensed) photons in a light beam not just a shift in frequency, also a similar (non-relativistic) effect on the number of observed (sensed) particles (with non-zero rest mass) in a particle beam. Optics texts have neither effect.

Photonic lenses with whispering gallery waves at Janus particles

We show that electric field on the plane surface of truncated sphere or cylinders(so called Janus particles)have sharp resonances versus the depth of removed segment of a sphere or cylinder.These resonances are related to the excited whispering gallery waves caused by truncation.It is a new mechanism of the field localization.Optimization of this effect for cylinders permits to reach a super resolution in the line thickness,which can be used for contact optical lithography.

Synthesis of Silica Particles with Precisely Tailored Diameter

A modified seeded growth process of silica particles with a continuous addition of tetraethyl orthosilicate （TEOS） was presented to control the diameter of silica particles. The diameter of particles was monitored by dynamic light scattering to control the addition of TEOS. The increase in the diameter of the silica particles with time and the addition of TEOS was investigated. The diameter of silica seeds increased from 193 nm to 446 nm in 4 h. The final diameter of silica particles was tailored within the range of ±5 nm to the target diameter. Silica particles with diameter of 446 nm were synthesized and assembled into photonic crystals with a pseudo band gap centered at just 1000 nm. The feasibility and practicability of this modified seeded growth process was verified.

Engineering particles towards 3D supraballs-based passive cooling via grafting CDs onto colloidal photonic crystals

Particle engineering has opened the floodgates to material science in both fundamental and application field. However, covalent interactions have not yet been adequately designed in the particle engineering for functional colloidal photonic crystals(CPCs). Herein, we achieved covalent coupling between carboxylrich poly(styrene-acrylic acid)(P(St-AA)) monodispersed colloidal particles and amine-rich carbon dots(CDs) based on an feasible and universal particle engineering strategy. The designed CDs-grafted P(St-AA)monodispersed colloidal particles initiate a hydrogen bond-driven assembly mode and ensure the construction of large-scale crack-free CPCs. Moreover, the CDs equipped with selective broad-band absorption capacity could improve the saturation of structural colors for high-visibility CPCs. Furthermore, an injectable photonic hydrogel(IPH) is developed to design CPC supraball hydrogel via integrating the CDsgrafted P(St-AA) CPC supraballs with supramolecular hydrogel. Combining superior flexibility, sufficient self-healing capacity of supramolecular hydrogel with visual optical information of our CPC supraballs, a cyclically reversible coding and decoding system was developed. Meanwhile, we firstly demonstrated the novel strategy of 3D supraballs-based passive cooling. The designed 3D CPC supraball hydrogel presents nearly full observation angle reflections behavior and excellent water evaporation capacity and achieves3.6 ℃ temperature drops, showing the application advantages in 3D thermal management. This work not only provides a new insight for manipulating optical properties of CPCs, but also demonstrates an easyto-perform platform, as well as indicates the direction for the promising application of CPCs.

On particles tunneling from the Taub-NUT-AdS black hole

This paper discusses tunneling of scalar particles and Dirac particles from the Taub-NUT-AdS black hole by the Hamilto-Jacobi equation, initially used by Angheben et al, and the Dirac equation, recently proposed by Kerner and Mann. This is performed in the dragging coordinate frame so as to avoid the ergosphere dragging effect. A general form is obtained for the temperature of scalar and Dirac particles tunneling from the Taub-NUT-Ads black hole, which is commensurate with other methods as expected.

Supersymmetry of In-group and “Out-group” Particles and Some Strange Phenomena

The symmetry of the in-group particles, which are of three-generation fermions, and the “out-group” ones, which are not admitted by three-generation fermions, is discussed. It was found that the “out-group” antiparticles of Bose type, which came into being because of CP （ charge Conjugation-Parity conservation） violation in the early universe and became heavier due to the phase transformation from low temperature to high temperature, are the supersymmetric companions of the in-group particles of Fermi type. The ratio of the number density of photons to that of protons calculated with Planck distribution method is about 0.61× 10^10, which is close to the observed value （ about 10^10） available in literature. A theoretical analysis of the structure of a photon suggests that the photon has a quark-gluon structure, which is consistent with the experimental result reported in literature. As the lightest particle in the supersymmetric companions, the calculated mass of a neutralino is 320 GeV. The so-called “vast area of desert” in mass scale appears to be the supersymmetry area of the three-generation particles, and “neutralinos” are the source of the moving of galaxies and the dark matter of non-baryons.

Wave Particle Duality &Interference Explained

Photons and elementary particles display the properties of particle as well as of wave known as Wave Particle Duality. Quantum Theory could not explain Wave Particle Duality only due to the belief that photon has no mass and accepted Wave Particle Duality as reality of quantum scale particles. “Experimental Proof of Mass in Photon” [1] discovered Inertial Force developed by the photons on Reflection. This Inertial Force is developed in the spinning photon from inside due to the mass of photon. These experiments also discovered that the centre of mass of photon was different from the centre of photon. Such presence of mass in a photon developing Inertial Force from within the photon gifts special properties to display Wave Particle Duality, Interference and Polarization etc. These phenomena are explained in this work which could not be explained by the Quantum Theory earlier. This work also confirms mass in photon based on both Newtonian and Special Theory of Relativity. New equations of true mass of photon are also derived.

Essence of Photons and Dark Matters

What exactly are photons and dark matter? Modern physical theories do not explain them very well. In this paper, by extending the law of electromagnetic oscillation, the space particles and their operation law can also be obtained. The system of space particle theory is formed under the law of physics. The conclusion of the theory of space particles is quite consistent with many physical phenomena. There are no contradictions that can be found. According to the theory of space particles, there is an uneven space at the edge of an object, which has been proved by a series of experimental phenomena. The theory of space particles has revealed the essence of photons and dark matter. It has also revealed the relationship between space, mass, and energy. Space is a physical phenomenon.

光子气体的热力学量

光子气体反映了20世纪物理学的量子力学与相对论两个主要发展,是理想气体模型的丰富补充.从统计物理的角度研究光子气体的各热力学量,光子气体的化学势为零,常温下光子气体的粒子数、内能、压强和熵等物理量比理想气体小数十个数量级,但在超高真空下可以比拟.

基于单颗粒微米核壳晶体的微区上转换发射光谱构筑微纳光子学条形码

基于外延生长技术构建不同结构特性的核壳结构已成为调控稀土掺杂微纳晶体材料发光特性的有效技术手段之一.为此,本文基于多次外延生长并引入NaYF_(4)中间隔离层,构建了具有壳层独立发光特性NaYF_(4):50%Yb^(3+)/2%Tm^(3+)@NaYF_(4)@NaYF_(4):20%Yb^(3+)/2%Er^(3+)@NaYF_(4)@NaYbF_(4):2%Er^(3+)多层微米核壳晶体.在980 nm激光激发下,借助共聚焦显微光谱测试系统,通过改变单颗粒微米晶体的激发位置,研究了单颗粒核壳微米晶体不同微区内的发光和能量传递特性.实验结果表明:在相邻发光层之间引入NaYF_(4)惰性壳,不仅可实现单颗粒微米晶体区域内发光的调控,且可有效抑制了各壳层离子间的相互作用,实现了各壳层的多彩独立发射.同时,基于单颗粒核壳微米晶体不同区域内多彩发射特性,构建具有信息可调的微纳光子学条形码.由此可见,本文所构建具有区域化可调发射的微米核壳结构,可在不同的激发条件下实现其发光的多彩可调,其丰富光谱指纹信息为单颗粒微米材料在光学防伪领域中的应用提供了新的途径.

光子晶体薄膜制备

光子晶体具备周期性结构,呈现结构色,在各种光器件领域有潜在应用价值,实验采用Stober法制备二氧化硅粒子,差速离心干燥得到二氧化硅白色粉末,二氧化硅粒子单分散性能好,尺寸分布均匀,并且随着氨水用量的增加,二氧化硅粒子尺寸也增大。乙醇为溶剂,配制二氧化硅乙醇溶液,运用旋涂法在玻璃基地制备了二氧化硅光子晶体薄膜材料,该方法用时短、效率高,制备的光子晶体薄膜颜色饱和度高,二氧化硅粒子尺寸增加,形成的光子晶体薄膜反射光波长也增大。

“Eternal Motion” as a “Form of Movement of a Special Nature” and the Main Condition for the Creation of the Universe

The article hypothesizes that DE and DM (UCM) are a “Form of Motion of a Special Nature”, where “Form of Motion” means “Eternal Motion” as the power of dynamics of different levels and varying degrees of self-sufficiency, and by “Special Nature”, gravitational and two other properties of matter, “tied” to the “Eternal Movement” and completely dependent on it. Carriers of key properties of a “Special Nature” have been established: “0”-DE particles and “3”-DM particles (UDM). The unity of their inherent “motionally-gravitational” properties and the peculiarity of the relationship between “motion” and “gravity” are revealed: the higher the intensity of “Eternal Motion”, the stronger the gravitational properties of matter are manifested (and vice versa). The relationship of “time” with the “vibration frequency” and the “mass” of photons with the “degree of bonding and deformation properties of the field” is shown. The maximum level of gravity has been determined, which allows Nature to successfully create the Universe: such a landmark is the proximity to the property of the Primary Source—the “pure graviton” of the OSP space, the most powerful “motionally-gravitational” particle of the Universe. The reasons for the emergence of such an identity of the gravitational properties of particles with the indicators of a “pure graviton” are established: for “0”-DE particles, this is the acquisition of the function of “freedom of movement”;for “3”-DM particles (UDM), the creation of a special structure—a “double field” (“Main” and “Small”). The presence in the “double field” of specific “tools” for the creation of the worlds of the Universe—gravitational “waves” gives rise to impulses (shocks) of varying intensity and shape. A list of functions performed by “waves” in the “Main” and “Small” fields has been compiled. The specific conditions for the formation of “UDM Streams”, their transformation into a “Vortex” and, under the influence of a powerful Initial Impulse (push), sending them to the “place” of the creation of galaxies, are shown. It is suggested that there is a “Cycle of Matter in Nature” in the closed structure of our Universe due to the “work” of “waves” and the functioning of special “factories” in the form of exotic space objects—Black holes.