Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and assessment of factors influ-encing transgene expression in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.)

This investigation reports a protocol for transfer and expression of foreign chimeric genes in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). Transformation was achieved by co-cultivation of mature zygotic embryos with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 which harbored a binary vector (pBI121) including genes for β-glucuronidase (GUS) and neomycin phosphotransferase (NPTII). Factors influencing transgene expression including seed sources of loblolly pine, concentration of bacteria, and the wounding procedures of target explants were investigated. The expression of foreign gene was confirmed by the ability of mature zygotic embryos to produce calli in the presence of kanamycin, by histochemical assays of GUS activity, by PCR analysis, and by Southern blot. The successful expression of the GUS gene in different families of loblolly pine suggests that this transformation system is probably useful for the production of the genetically modified conifers.

Genetic transformation of Pinus taeda by particle bombardment

A protocol is presented for genetically engineering loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) using particle bombardment. This protocol enabled the routine transformation of loblolly pine plants that were previously difficult to transform. Mature zygotic embryos were used to be bombarded and to generate organogenic callus and transgenic regenerated plants. Plasmid pB48.215 DNA contained a synthetic Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) cryIAc coding sequence flanked by the double cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter and nopaline synthase (Nos) terminator sequences, and the selectable marker gene, neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) controlled by the promoter of the nopaline synthase gene was introduced into loblolly pine tissues by particle bombardment. The transformed tissues were proliferated and selected by kanamycin resistance conferred by the introduced NPTII gene. Shoot regeneration was induced from the kanamycin-resistant callus, and transgenic plantlets were then produced. The presence of the introduced genes in the transgenic loblolly pine plants was confirmed by polymerase chain reactions (PCR) analysis, by Southern blot analysis, and insect feeding assays. The recovered transgenic plants were acclimatized and then established in soil.

Influences of antibiotics on plantlet regeneration via organogenesis in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.)

Three antibiotics ampicillin, carbenicillin, and cefotaxime were evaluated for their effects on induction, growth, and differentiation of organogenic calli, as well as rooting of regenerated shoots of three loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) genotypes. Of the antibiotics administered, cefotaxime maximally increased the frequency of callus formation and growth rate of organogenic calli, carbenicillin maximally increased the frequency of shoot regeneration and the average number of adventitious shoots per piece of organogenic callus, ampicillin maximally decreased the rooting frequency of regenerated shoots and mean number of roots per regenerated shoot, in comparison with antibiotic-free media. Compared with the control, ampicillin minimally increased the frequency of callus formation, cefotaxime minimally increased the frequency of shoot regeneration, and carbenicillin mini-mally decreased the rooting frequency of regenerated shoots in three loblolly pine genotypes tested. All three antibiotics in-creased the frequencies of callus formation and shoot regeneration, and reduced the rooting frequency of regenerated shoots suggested that the establishment of an efficient Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation protocol for stable integra-tion of foreign genes into loblolly pine need to select a suitable antibiotic. This investigation could be useful for optimizing genetic transformation of conifers.

Adaptation of pine wood nematode,Bursaphelenchus xylophilus,early in its interaction with two Pinus species that differ in resistance

Pine wilt disease(PWD)is one of the most devastating diseases of Pinu s spp.and is caused by the pine wood nematode(PWN),Bursaphelenchus xylophilus(Steiner&Buhrer)Nickle.To study adaptation of PWN to survive in hosts that differ in resistance,we examined the self-regulatory characteristics of PWN at the biological and molecular levels early in the interaction.Two-year-old susceptible Pinus thunbergii and resistant Pinus taeda were selected for this experiment,and changes in PWNs after inoculation were assessed.q RT-PCR was used to detect changes in genes related to PWN pathogenicity and detoxification.The results showed that the migration and reproductive abilities of PWNs in P.thunbergii were stronger than those of PWNs in P.taeda.After 7 d,the number of nematodes in P.thunbergii was approximately 3.2-fold higher than in P.taeda.After 15 d,the number of nematodes in P.thunbergii was approximately twofold higher than that in P.taeda.Because PWN can adjust its sex ratio after infection,we compared the sex ratio of uninoculated PWNs,to that in the two pine species.In P.thunbergii,the female to male ratio first decreased and then stabilized over time;in P.taeda first decreased and then increased.Relative fat accumulation in PWNs increased significantly after the PWNs entered the tree body;the accumulation rate in P.thunbergii was higher than in P.taeda at 7 d,but lower after 15 d.Scanning electron microscopy(SEM)showed significantly more bacteria on the surface of PWNs in P.taeda compared with PWNs in susceptible P.thunbergii.At 12 h after inoculation,the expression of genes related to cell-wall degradation(Bx Beta1-4 and Bxpel1),effectors(Bx CDP1,Bx Sap B1),and active oxygen metabolism(Bxy-ctl-1 and Bx GST3)was 2–6×higher in the resistant pine than in the susceptible one.In contrast,in PWNs,the expression of autophagy-related genes Bx ATG1 and Bx ATG16 was 1.5–2 times higher in P.thunbergii than in P.taeda.These results indicate that the interaction between PWNs and pine trees with different resistance levels elicits a series of physiological and molecular adaptations that affect nematode reproduction and virulence.This study will help elucidate the adaptive mechanisms of PWN in different pine trees.

Studies on Parameters Affecting Embryogenesis of Protoplasts Isolated from Suspension of Embryogenic Cells in Loblolly Pine

Protoplasts of embryogenic suspension cells of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L).were isolated at exponential growth stage.Influences of various concentrations of basal medium,levels of BA,and concentrations of inositol on the differentiation of embryonal suspensor mass (ESM),early stage somatic embryos (ESE) ,and lae stage somatic embryos (LSE) were investigated .A study of the effect of various concentrations of LP basal medium sowed that the optimal basal medium concentration of ESM,ESE,and LSE differentiation was 1.25 LP medium.The effects of various levels of BA and inositol showed that the optimal concentrations of BA for the formation of ESM,ESE and LSE were 4 mg/L ,2mg/L and 1mg/L,respectively ,and the optimal concentrations of inositol for the ESM ,ESE and LSM formation were 400mg/L,800mg/L and 1,200mg/L,respectively.

Regeneration of transgenic loblolly pine expressing genes for salt tolerance

Salinity stress is one of the most serious factors limiting the distribution and productivity of crops and forest trees. The detrimental effects of salt on plants are a consequence of both a water deficit resulting in osmotic stress and the effects of excess sodium ions on critical biochemical process. A novel approach to improve salt tolerance has been established by using the technology of plant genetic transformation and using loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) as a model plant. Mature zygotic embryos of loblolly pine were infected with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA 4404 harbouring the plasmid pBIGM which carrying the mannitol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase (Mt1D) and glucitol-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (GutD). Organogenic transgenic calli and transgenic regenerated plantlets were produced on selection medium containing 15mg/L kanamycin and confirmed by Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA. Salt tolerance assays demonstrated that the salt tolerance of transgenic calli and regenerated plantlets were increased. These results suggested that an efficient Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation protocol for stable integration of foreign genes into loblolly pine has been developed and this could be useful for the future studies on engineering breeding of conifers.

Somatic embryogenesis and peroxidase activity of desiccation tol-erant mature somatic embryos of loblolly pine

White, translucent, glossy mucilaginous callus was initiated from the mature zygotic embryos explants on callus induction medium with 2,4-D, BA, and kinetin in the 3-9th week of culture. This type of callus induction occurred at a lower fre-quency with either a-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) or IBA (both 8 mg/L). White, translucent, glossy mucilaginous callus was embryogenic and mainly developed from the cotyledons of the mature zygotic embryo. Somatic embryos were formed on dif-ferentiation medium. Desiccation tolerance can be induced by culturing somatic embryos of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) on medium supplemented with 50 mm abscisic acid (ABA) and/or 8.5% polyethylene glycol (PEG6000). Scanning electron micros-copy of desiccated somatic embryos showed that the size and external morphology of the desiccation tolerant somatic embryos recovered to the pre-desiccation state within 24-36 h, whereas the sensitive somatic embryos did not recover and remained shriveled, after the desiccated somatic embryos had been rehydrated. Peroxidase activity of desiccated somatic embryos in-creased sharply after 3 days of desiccation treatment, and desiccation tolerant somatic embryos had higher peroxidase activity compared to sensitive somatic embryos. Higher peroxidase activity of desiccation tolerant somatic embryos was possibly ad-vantage of catalyzing the reduction of H2O2 which was produced by drought stress, and protecting somatic embryos from oxida-tive damage.

Genetic transformation of loblolly pine using mature zygotic embryo explants by Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA 4404 carrying pBI121 plasmid was used to transform mature zygotic embryos of three genotypes (E-Hb, E-Ma, and E-Mc) of loblolly pine. The results demonstrated that the expression frequency of (-glucuronidase reporter gene (GUS) varied among genotypes after mature zygotic embryos were infected with Agrobacterium tumefaciens cultures. The highest frequency (27.8%) of GUS expressing embryos was obtained from genotype E-Mc with mean number of 21.9 blue GUS spots per embryo. Expression of (-glucuronidase reporter gene was observed on cotyledons, hypocotyls, and radicles of transformed mature zygotic embryos, as well as on organogenic callus and regenerated shoots derived from co-cultivated mature zygotic embryos. Nineteen regenerated transgenic plants were obtained from GUS expression and kanamycin resistant calli. The presence and integration of the GUS gene was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern blot analysis. These results suggested that an efficient Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation protocol for stable integration of foreign genes into loblolly pine has been developed and that this transformation system could be useful for the future studies on transferring economically important genes to loblolly pine.

Enhanced Somatic Embryogenesis and Plant Regeneration from Embryogenic Cultures Derived from Mature Loblolly Pine Zygotic Embryos by Suspension Culture and Medium Selection

Mature zygotic embryos of three families of loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) were cultured on callus induction medium containing 8?mg·L -1 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4 D), 4?mg·L -1 6 benzyladenine (BA), 4?mg·L -1 kinetin (KT), 500?mg·L -1 casein hydrolysate, and 500?mg·L -1 glutamine for 9 weeks, callus was formed on cotyledons, hypocotyls, and radicles of mature zygotic embryos. Callus was sub cultured on the callus proliferation medium with 1 6?mg·L -1 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4 D), 0 8?mg·L -1 6 benzyladenine (BA), 0 8?mg·L -1 kinetin (KT) for 9 weeks. White translucent, glossy, mucilaginous embryogenic callus containing embryogenic suspensor masses (ESM) and immature somatic embryos was obtained, and the highest frequency of explants forming embryogenic callus was 16 9%. Embryogenic suspension cultures were established by culturing embryogenic callus in liquid callus proliferation medium. Liquid cultures containing embryogenic suspension masses and immature somatic embryos were transferred to medium containing abscisic acid (ABA), polyethylene glycols (PEG), or activated charcoal for enhancing the production of cotyledonary somatic embryos. After mature somatic embryos were cultured on medium containing indole butyric acid (IBA), gibberellic acid (GA 3), BA, and activated charcoal and being lowered sucrose concentration for 4～12 weeks, somatic embryos germinated to form regenerated plantlets. Seventy one regenerated plantlets were transferred to a perlits∶peatmoss∶vermiculate (1∶1∶1) soil mixture, and 23 plantlets survived in the field.

Linking individual-tree and whole-stand models for forest growth and yield prediction

Background： Different types of growth and yield models provide essential information for making informed decisions on how to manage forests. Whole-stand models often provide well-behaved outputs at the stand level, but lack information on stand structures. Detailed information from individual-tree models and size-class models typically suffers from accumulation of errors. The disaggregation method, in assuming that predictions from a whole-stand model are reliable, partitions these outputs to individual trees. On the other hand, the combination method seeks to improve stand-level predictions from both whole-stand and individual-tree models by combining them. Methods： Data from 100 plots randomly selected from the Southwicte Seed Source Study of Ioblolly pine （Pinus taedo L） were used to evaluate the unadjusted individual-tree model against the disaggregation and combination methods. Results： Compared to the whole-stand model, the combination method did not show improvements in predicting stand attributes in this study. The combination method also did not perform as well as the disaggregation method in tree-level predictions. The disaggregation method provided the best predictions of tree- and stand-level survival and growth. Conclusions： The disaggregation approach provides a link between individual-tree models and whole-stand models, and should be considered as a better alternative to the unadjusted tree model.

Micropropagation of loblolly pine by somatic organogenesis andRAPD analysis of regenerated plantlets

Organogenesis was induced in callus derived from mature zygotic embryos of six families (J-56, S-1003, E-22, E-311, E-440, and Mc) of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) within 24 weeks of culture. Elongation of adventitious buds was achieved on TE medium supplemented with 0.5 mg·L?1 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 1 mg/l 6-benzyladenine (BA). The most suitable medium for root formation proved to be TE medium supplemented with 0.5 mg·L?1 IBA, 2mg·L?1 BA and 0.5 mg/l gibberellic acid (GA3). 169 regenerated plantlets were transferred to a perlite: peatmoss: vermiculite (1∶1∶1) soil mixture, and 98 plantlets survived in the field. Total DNA was extracted from the needles of the regenerated plantlets of the six families of loblolly pine. Analysis of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) using 20 arbitrary oligonucleotide 10-mers, show that amplification products were monomorphic for all the plantlets of family J-56, S-1003, E-22, E-311, E-440, and Mc of loblolly pine. These results suggested that organogenesis can be used for clonal micropropagation of some families of loblolly pine.

Preliminary Studies on Establishment of Genetic Transformation System in Loblolly Pine

A transformation system was established for loblolly pine (Pimus taeda L ) mature zygotic embryos using Agrobacterium tumefaciens.The gene coding for the glucuronidase (GUS) gene was introduced into loblolly pine tissues andits transient expression was detected with histochemical staining. The influences of different genotypes. Agrobacterium concentrations. and cocultivation time on GUS expression and Kanamycin resistant callus and shoot regeheration were investigated. The results showed that the highest `GUS expression frequency (1 6.3%) and shoot regencration frequency(7.8%) wereobtained from genotype 9-1003 with, Agrobactemm concentration decreased 9 times and cocultivation time of 56 hours.respectively GUS expression was, obtained in all genotypes tested The successtul expression of the GUS gene in differentgenotypes suggested that it will be a useful transformation system for loblolly pine