Tree species identity and interaction determine vertical forest structure in young planted forests measured by terrestrial laser scanning

Vertical forest structure is closely linked to multiple ecosystem characteristics,such as biodiversity,habitat,and productivity.Mixing tree species in planted forests has the potential to create diverse vertical forest structures due to the different physiological and morphological traits of the composing tree species.However,the relative importance of species richness,species identity and species interactions for the variation in vertical forest structure remains unclear,mainly because traditional forest inventories do not observe vertical stand structure in detail.Terrestrial laser scanning(TLS),however,allows to study vertical forest structure in an unprecedented way.Therefore,we used TLS single scan data from 126 plots across three experimental planted forests of a largescale tree diversity experiment in Belgium to study the drivers of vertical forest structure.These plots were 9–11years old young pure and mixed forests,characterized by four levels of tree species richness ranging from monocultures to four-species mixtures,across twenty composition levels.We generated vertical plant profiles from the TLS data and derived six stand structural variables.Linear mixed models were used to test the effect of species richness on structural variables.Employing a hierarchical diversity interaction modelling framework,we further assessed species identity effect and various species interaction effects on the six stand structural variables.Our results showed that species richness did not significantly influence most of the stand structure variables,except for canopy height and foliage height diversity.Species identity on the other hand exhibited a significant impact on vertical forest structure across all sites.Species interaction effects were observed to be site-dependent due to varying site conditions and species pools,and rapidly growing tree species tend to dominate these interactions.Overall,our results highlighted the importance of considering both species identity and interaction effects in choosing suitable species combinations for forest management practices aimed at enhancing vertical forest structure.

Biomass Carbon Sequestration by Planted Forests in China

The planted forest area and carbon sequestration have increased significantly in China,because of large-scale reforestation and afforestation in the past decades.In this study,we developed an age-based volume-to-biomass method to estimate the carbon storage by planted forests in China in the period of 1973-2003 based on the data from 1209 field plots and national forest inventories.The results show that the total carbon storage of planted forests was 0.7743 Pg C in 1999-2003,increased by 3.08 times since the early 1970s.The carbon density of planted forests varied from 10.6594 Mg/ha to 23.9760 Mg/ha and increased by 13.3166 Mg/ha from 1973-1976 to 1999-2003.Since the early 1970s,the planted forests in China have been always a carbon sink,and the annual rate of carbon sequestration was 0.0217 Pg C/yr.The carbon storage and densities of planted forests varied greatly in space and time.The carbon storage of Middle South China was in the lead in all regions,which accounted for 23%-36% of national carbon storage.While higher C densities (from 17.79 Mg/ha to 26.05 Mg/ha) were usually found in Northeast China.The planted forests in China potentially have a high carbon sequestration since a large part of them are becoming mature and afforestation continues to grow.

Compound Planting of Bletilla striata under Forest in the Three Gorges Dam Area

[Objectives] The aim was to study the artificial cultivation of Bletilla striata to realize large scale and standardization planting. [Methods] The comparison tests were conducted on B. striata with different canopy densities of the Magnolia officinalis forests,different compound planting densities and different tending measures and management. [Results] When the stand canopy density was 0. 4-0. 6,the per unit yield of B. striata was 5. 4%,6. 8% higher than that at the canopy density of less than 0. 4 and more than 0. 6,respectively. When the planting density was 30 cm × 30 cm,the per unit yield increased by 16. 1%,12. 0%,13. 1% respectively compared with the planting density of 20 cm × 20 cm,25 cm × 25 cm,35 cm × 35 cm. When B. striata was planted from October to November,the per unit yield was 5. 6% higher than that planted from December to January of the following year,and 21. 3% higher than that from February to March of the second year. When farmyard manure was applied during the cultivation,the per unit yield was 31. 7% and 18. 4% higher than the application of chemical fertilizer and compound fertilizer. When weeding 4 times per year,the per unit yield increased by 240. 1%,137. 0% and 43. 9% respectively from that weeding 1 times,2 times,3 times per year. [Conclusions]When planting B. striata,the stand canopy density of 0. 4-0. 6 could make it receive absolutely shelters and the lighting conditions required for the growth,thereby bringing in high emergence rate,good growth potential and high yield. The best planting effect of B. striata could achieve by planting from October to November with the planting density of 30 cm × 30 cm,which can play the maximum benefit of individual plants. Moreover,weeding 4 times per year combined with the use of farmyard manure can promote the development and growth of tubers,which can greatly improve the yield of B. striata.

Population structure and body condition of White-crested Elaenia(Elaenia albiceps)in relation to habitat in a modiffed Neotropical forest landscape

Despite the widely accepted view that planted forests are valuable habitat for wildlife species,there is a lack of empirical evidence showing the suitability of this novel habitat,especially in relation to plantations of exotic tree species.Furthermore,little is known about the effects of forest management on the ecology and dynamics of wild populations in the Neotropics.During the breeding season,the migrant flycatcher White-crested Elaenia is the most abundant bird species in forested landscapes in Chile.For several years we have studied different aspects of these artificial forests in the coastal range of south-central Chile as habitat for the species,particularly in contrast to the native forest.In general,our results indicate that plantation forests offer a poorer quality habitat,where the density of the species tends to be lower than in the native forest,although a significant edge effect suggests that its quality can be mitigated by planting as a matrix mosaic with native forest.Furthermore,compared to native forests,populations in plantations contained a higher proportion of younger adult individuals maintaining larger territories,and showing poorer body condition.We suggest that these differences could also have an impact on the birds'longevity and survival.

Sensitivity of forest phenology in China varies with proximity to forest edges

Background:Shifts in forest phenological events serve as strong indicators of climate change.However,the sensitivity of phenology events to climate change in relation to forest origins has received limited attention.Moreover,it is unknown whether forest phenology changes with the proximity to forest edge.Methods:This study examined the green-up dates,dormancy dates,time-integrated NDVI(LiNDVI,a measure of vegetation productivity in growing season),and their sensitivities to climatic factors along the gradients of distance(i.e.proximity)to forest edge(0–2 km)in China's natural forests(NF)and planted forests(PF).For the analysis,field-surveyed data were integrated with Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS)NDVI from 2000 to 2022.Results:Our results reveal that PF had earlier green-up dates,later dormancy dates,and higher LiNDVI than NF.However,green-up sensitivities to temperature were higher at the edges of NF,whereas no such pattern was observed in PF.Conversely,the sensitivity of dormancy dates remains relatively stable from the inner to the edge of both NF and PF,except for a quadratic change in dormancy date sensitivity to precipitation found in NF.Additionally,we found that the green-up sensitivity to temperature increased with decreasing proximity to edge in NF evergreen forests,while it showed the opposite trend in PF evergreen forests.Furthermore,we observed that the precipitation impact on green-up dates shifts from postponing to advancing from the inner to the edge of NF,whereas precipitation dominantly postpones PF's green-up dates regardless of the proximity to edge.The LiNDVI exhibits higher sensitivity to precipitation at the edge areas,a phenomenon observed in NF but not in PF.Conclusions:These results suggest that the responses of forests to climate change vary with the distance to the edge.With increasing edge forests,which results from fragmentation caused by global changes,we anticipate that desynchronized phenological events along the distance to the edge could alter biogeochemical cycles and reshape ecosystem services such as energy flows,pollination duration,and the tourism industry.Therefore,we advocate for further investigations of edge effects to improve ecosystem modelling,enhance forest stability,and promote sustainable tourism.

Pursuing the goal of carbon neutrality in China:path for realization of carbon sequestration in planted forests

Tree plantations are an important forest resource that substantively contributes to climate change mitigation and carbon sequestration.As the area and standing volume of tree plantations in China have increased,issues such as unreasonable structure,low productivity,limited ecological functionality and diminishing ecological stability have occurred,which hinder the ability of tree plantations to enhance carbon sequestration.This study outlined the trajectory of carbon sequestration and its associated benefits in tree plantations by examining the current state of tree plantation establishment and growth,elucidated the strategies for advantages of carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in planted forests,and summarized the existing problems with tree plantations.This paper underscores the pressing need for concerted efforts to boost carbon sequestration within planted forests and proposes management and development strategies for Chinese tree plantations.In the future,it will be necessary to apply scientific theories to practice and develop multi-objective management optimization models for the high-quality development of tree plantations.This will involve establishing a cohesive national carbon trading market,improving the prediction of carbon sequestration,and identifying priority zones for afforestation and reforestation,to better serve China’s national strategy for achieving peak carbon and carbon neutrality.

Soil Organic Carbon Pool and Its Influencing Factors in Rubber Planted Forest Ecosystem at Different Ages in West Hainan Province

In this research,the contents of organic carbon in soil profiles in rubber forests in west of Hainan were measured and storage quantity of oganic carbon was estimated.The results indicated that contents of organic carbon in soils of ecosystem of rubber forests at different ages were 6.20-14.36 g/kg;organic carbon in soils of rubber forests reduced upon soil depth;the contents differed signigicantly in soils at 0-60 cm in rubber forest at 33 a,but differed little in soils in rubber forests at other ages;the contents were of significant differences in soils in rubber forests at different ages;organic carbon concentrated in soils at 0-30 cm;the storage quantities of organic carbon in rubber forests at 5,10,19 and 33 a were 76.85,74.48,81.74 and 85.31 t/hm^2.Climate,soil property,accumualtion and decomposition of fallen materials,forest age and management are dominant factors influencing accumulation of organic carbon in soils of rubber forest.

Forest management required for consistent carbon sink in China’s forest plantations

Background:Forest is the largest biomass carbon(C)pool in China,taking up a substantial amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.Although it is well understood that planted forests(PFs)act as a large C sink,the contribution of human management to C storage enhancement remains obscure.Moreover,existing projections of forest C dynamics suffer from spatially inconsistent age and type information or neglected human management impacts.In this study,using developed PF age and type maps and data collected from 1371 forest plantation sites in China,we simulated biomass C stock change and quantified management impacts for the time period 2010-2050.Results:Results show that future forest biomass C increment might have been overestimated by 32.5%-107.5% in former studies.We also found that age-related growth will be by far the largest contributor to PF biomass C increment from 2010 to 2050(1.23±0.002 Pg C,1 Pg=10^(15) g=1 billion metric tons),followed by the impact of human management(0.57±0.02 Pg C),while the contribution of climate is slight(0.087±0.04 Pg C).Besides,an additional 0.24±0.07 Pg C can be stored if current PFs are all managed by 2050,resulting in a total increase of 2.13±0.05 Pg C.Conclusions:Forest management and age-related growth dominate the biomass C change in PFs,while the effect of climatic factors on the accumulation is minor.To achieve the ambitious goal of forest C stock enhancement by 3.5 Pg from 2020 to 2050,we advocate to improve the management of existing forests and reduce the requests for more lands for forest expansion,which helps mitigate potential conflicts with agricultural sectors.Our results highlight that appropriate planning and management are required for sustaining and enhancing biomass C sequestration in China’s PF.

Relationship between diversity of forest plant species and environmental gradient in eastern mountainous area of Heilongjiang Province, China

Twenty-three secondary forest communities with different structure were selected in Mao＇er Mountain National Park of Heilongjiang Province, China to study the relationship between diversity of forest plant species and environmental gradient. The forest plant species diversity was analyzed by the diversity index, and the environmental factors was quantified by the method of Whittaker＇s quantification of environmental gradient. Meanwhile, β-diversity indexes of communities were calculated with similar measurements. The results showed that the Shannon-wiener diversity index of forest plant species increased with the increase of the environmental gradient, and the β-diversity indexes of communities showed a liner increase along with the change of environmental gradient.

Effects of Urbanization,Soil Property and Vegetation Configuration on Soil Infiltration of Urban Forest in Changchun,Northeast China

Urban forest soil infiltration, affected by various factors, is closely related with surface runoff. This paper studied the effect of urban forest types, vegetation configuration and soil properties on soil infiltration. In our study, 191 typical plots were sampled in Changchun City, China to investigate the soil infiltration characteristics of urban forest and its influencing factors. Our results showed that the steady infiltration rates of urban forest soil were highly variable. High variations in the final infiltration rates were observed for different vegetation patterns and compaction degrees. Trees with shrubs and grasses had the highest infiltration rate and trees with bare land had the lowest infiltration rate. In addition, our results showed that the soil infiltration rate decreased with an increase in the bulk density and with a reduction in the soil organic matter content and non-capillary porosity. The soil infiltration rate also had significantly positive relationships with the total porosity and saturated soil water content. Urban soil compaction contributed to low soil infiltration rates. To increase the infiltration rate and water storage volume of urban forest soil, proper techniques to minimize and mitigate soil compaction should be used. These findings can provide useful information for urban planners about how to maximize the water volume of urban forest soil and decrease urban instantaneous flooding.

Linear programming approach for optimal forest plantation

The aim of this research was to identify species suitable for plantation. We first identified species for potentially suitable for plantation based on ecological capabilities regarding soil properties. We determined the area of plantation for different species based on ecological capabilities. Then, we collected relevant data such as growth patterns of different species, labor requirements for plantation and plantation cost. A linear programming model and two integer linear programming models were used for optimization. The appropriate species based on ecological capabilities were ash, elm, maple, oak and bald cypress. A linear programming model was used based on ecological capabilities classification to determine the land area of different species for plantation. Then, two integer linear programming models were employed to select the species for plantation. We set ecological properties unequal for all of the species in the first run of the integer programming model. Two groups were classified： group one included maple and ash; group two included bald cypress,oak and elm. The second integer programming model assumed equal ecological properties for all the species.Results of linear programming showed that maple and bald cypress were appropriate for plantation at the site and their plantation areas should be 151.3 and 355.3 ha, respectively. Results of the first integer linear programming model showed that maple and bald cypress would be economically profitable for plantation. The results of the second integer linear programming model showed that only bald cypress would be appropriate for plantation.

Spatio-temporal changes in biomass carbon sinks in China's forests from 1977 to 2008

Forests play a leading role in regional and global carbon (C) cycles. Detailed assessment of the temporal and spatial changes in C sinks/sources of China's forests is critical to the estimation of the national C budget and can help to constitute sustainable forest management policies for climate change. In this study, we explored the spatio-temporal changes in forest biomass C stocks in China between 1977 and 2008, using six periods of the national forest inventory data. According to the definition of the forest inventory, China's forest was categorized into three groups: forest stand, economic forest, and bamboo forest. We estimated forest biomass C stocks for each inventory period by using continuous biomass expansion factor (BEF) method for forest stands, and the mean biomass density method for economic and bamboo forests. As a result, China's forests have accumulated biomass C (i.e., biomass C sink) of 1896 Tg (1Tg=1012g) during the study period, with 1710, 108 and 78 Tg C in forest stands, and economic and bamboo forests, respectively. Annual forest biomass C sink was 70.2 Tg Ca-1 , offsetting 7.8% of the contemporary fossil CO2 emissions in the country. The results also showed that planted forests have functioned as a persistent C sink, sequestrating 818 Tg C and accounting for 47.8% of total C sink in forest stands, and that the old-, mid- and young-aged forests have sequestrated 930, 391 and 388 Tg C from 1977 to 2008. Our results suggest that China's forests have a big potential as biomass C sink in the future because of its large area of planted forests with young-aged growth and low C density.

Sustainable Management of Planted Forests in China: Comprehensive Evaluation, Development Recommendation and Action Framework

China is one of the largest countries in the world in terms of planted forests area. Planted forests play an important role in soil and water conservation, food source, timber supply and energy security, but there are still many problems waiting for immediate resolution. Based on the current development status of planted forest in China, the paper made an comprehensive analysis for the positive impact and existing problems with regard to planted forests, and then came up with policy recommendations for promoting sustainable management of planted forests, mainly including: 1) to accelerate planted forests development and improve the quality; 2) to strengthen the protection and management, and quicken the development of planted forests; 3) to enhance the scientific planning for planted forests; 4) to reinforce the management for forests harvesting so as to promote the reasonable utilization of planted forests; 5) to perfect the management system for planted forest resources and improve the managerial capacity; 6) to complete related laws and regulations and improve the policy guarantee system; 7) to reinforce the forest tenure reform and establish a sound planted forest land transference system. Finally, the paper presented the future action framework for guiding the sustainable management of planted forests in China.

Effects of habitat configuration on biodiversity along gradients of forest cover on the Swiss Plateau

The negative effects of habitat loss on biodiversity are undisputed,while the effect of habitat configuration,i.e.,the spatial arrangement of habitat area,has been debated for decades.To develop a more comprehensive understanding,it is important to know when and how configuration matters.In this study,we tested whether forest configuration influences the richness of species in groups characterized by varying shade tolerance in different ways and how such effects are related to habitat amount(i.e.,the percentage of forest cover)at the landscape scale.Based on 104 survey plots(each measuring 1​km^(2))of vascular plants on the Swiss Plateau,and using two statistical approaches(i.e.,multiple regression and path analysis),we modeled the effects of habitat amount and configuration(measured as number of forest patches,total edge length,and proximity index)across all the plots and separately for three habitat amount classes:<10%,10%–30%,and>30%forest cover.When we modeled all plots together,we found that,after controlling for habitat amount,the forest configuration significantly affected species richness.When we considered the different habitat amount classes separately,most of the significant effects of habitat configuration on species richness occurred only for habitat amounts of<10%forest cover.Additionally,the response to forest configuration differed among species with different shade tolerances.When forest area was<10%,the effects of the number of patches and the total edge length on the species richness of light-demanding forest species were greater than the effect of habitat amount,whereas neither configuration metric affected the richness of shade-tolerant species.In conclusion,our findings highlight the importance of configuration in landscapes with a small amount of habitat.At the same time,they demonstrate that considering the confounding factors(e.g.species traits)is important for understanding the effects of forest configuration on biodiversity and that generalizations remain a challenge for landscape ecology.

Climate factors affect forest biomass allocation by altering soil nutrient availability and leaf traits

Biomass in forests sequesters substantial amounts of carbon;although the contribution of aboveground biomass has been extensively studied, the contribution of belowground biomass remains understudied. Investigating the forest biomass allocation is crucial for understanding the impacts of global change on carbon allocation and cycling.Moreover, the question of how climate factors affect biomass allocation in natural and planted forests remains unresolved. Here, we addressed this question by collecting data from 384 planted forests and 541 natural forests in China. We evaluated the direct and indirect effects of climate factors on the belowground biomass proportion(BGBP). The average BGBP was 31.09% in natural forests and was significantly higher(38.75%) in planted forests. Furthermore, we observed a significant decrease in BGBP with increasing temperature and precipitation. Climate factors, particularly those affecting soil factors, such as p H,strongly affected the BGBP in natural and planted forests. Based on our results, we propose that future studies should consider the effects of forest type(natural or planted) and soil factors on BGBP.

Seasonal drought effects on carbon sequestration of a mid-subtropical planted forest of southeastern China

Continuous measurement of carbon dioxide exchange using the eddy covariance (EC) technique is made at the Qianyanzhou mid-subtropical planted forest as part of the ChinaFLUX network. Qianyanzhou planted forest is affected by typical subtropical continental monsoon climate. It has plentiful water and heat resource but is in inconsistency of its seasonal distribution in the mid-subtropical region, thus seasonal drought frequently occurs in this planted forest. In this study, seasonal drought effect on ecosystem carbon sequestration was analyzed based on net ecosystem productivity (NEP), ecosystem respiration (RE) and gross ecosystem productivity (GEP) at the month scale in 2003 and 2004. In this drought-stressed planted forest, ecosystem carbon sequestration showed a clear seasonality, with low rates during seasonal drought and in winter. The declining degree of ecosystem carbon sequestration under the seasonal drought condition was determined by the accumulation of soil moisture deficits and a co-occurrence of high temperatures. Different drought effects are expected for RE and GEP. The net effect of ecosystem carbon balance depends on how these two quantities are affected relatively to each other. Summer drought and heat wave are two aspects of weather that likely play an important part in the annual NEP of forest in this region.

Effects of Different Biochars on Pinus elliottii Growth,N Use Efficiency,Soil N_2O and CH_4 Emissions and C Storage in a Subtropical Area of China

Intensive management of planted forests may result in soil degradation and decline in timber yield with successive rotations. Biochars may be beneficial for plant production, nutrient uptake and greenhouse gas mitigation. Biochar properties vary widely and are known to be highly dependent on feedstocks, but their effects on planted forest ecosystem are elusive. This study investigated the effects of chicken manure biochar, sawdust biochar and their feedstocks on 2-year-old Pinus elliottii growth, fertilizer N use efficiency （NUE）, soil N20 and CH4 emissions, and C storage in an acidic forest soil in a subtropical area of China for one year. The soil was mixed with materials in a total of 8 treatments： non-amended control （CK）; sawdust at 2.16 kg m^-2 （SD）; chicken manure at 1.26 kg m^-2 （CM）; sawdust biochar at 2.4 kg m^-2 （SDB）; chicken manure biochar at 2.4 kg m^-2 （CMB）; 15N-fertilizer alone （10.23 atom% 15N） （NF）; sawdust biochar at 2.4 kg m^-2 plus lSN-fertilizer （SDBN） and chicken manure biochar at 2.4 kg m^-2 plus 15N-fertilizer （CMBN）. Results showed that the CMB treatment increased P. elliottii net primary production （aboveground biomass plus litterfall） and annual net C fixation （ANCF） by about 180% and 157%, respectively, while the the SDB treatment had little effect on P. eUiottii growth. The 15N stable isotope labelling technique revealed that fertilizer NUE was 22.7% in CK, 25.5% in the NF treatment, and 37.0% in the CMB treatment. Chicken manure biochar significantly increased soil pH, total N, total P, total K, available P and available K. Only 2% of the N in chicken manure biochar was available to the tree. The soil N20 emission and CH4 uptake showed no significant differences among the treatments. The apparent C losses from the SD and CM treatments were 35% and 61%, respectively; while those from the CMB and SDB treatments were negligible. These demonstrated that it is crucial to consider biochar properties while evaluating their effects on plant growth and C sequestration.

Global Planted Forest Development: Opportunities,Challenges and Policy Choices

In recent decades, there has seen a dramatic expansion of global planted forest area and their great impact on human life. It is reported in Forest Resource Assessment 2010 that the current area of global planted forests is about 264 million ha, representing only 7% of the total forest area but able to meet the two thirds of the global demand for logs. Planted forests can not only provide timber, fiber, fuel and non-wood forest products, but also contribute to carbon sequestration, restoration of degraded land, landscape rehabilitation and watershed protection. Besides, planted forests can also provide the recreation and amusement for people. In such sense, in the coming decades, planted forests, driven by various factors such as social- economic conditions, market, consumers' demand and new technologies, will have good opportunities for development, and will also increase their contribution to achieving the series of development objectives worldwide. In the meanwhile, the development of planted forests is also constrained by the factors like policies, laws, regulations, technologies and funds, and therefore faced with the challenges in terms of eco- environment preservation, economic development and protection of community interests. Based on the long- term monitoring and research of planted forest development as well as the field study of planted forests abroad, the paper identified the opportunities and challenges in the development of global planted forests through such methods as the SWOT, policy analysis and the others, and proposed the policy choices for promoting the sustainable development of planted forests: 1) There is a need to further understand the functions of planted forests and the importance of the degraded land restoration; 2) A good institutional guarantee and investment environment should be created for the planted forest development; 3) The advanced concepts and methods in terms of the planted forests management should be actively promoted and applied; 4) There is a need to put more focus on environment management and social responsibility; 5) The intensive management of planted forests needs to rely on science and technology support; 6) The international cooperation should be strengthened to jointly facilitate the sustainable development of planted forests.

A new complex plant for carbonization and composting of municipal wastes

A new complex plant for carbonization and composting of municipal wastes proposed for Gero City is introduced. The separated combustible waste and non-separated combustible waste are carbonized in two fluidized carbonization furnaces in the plant, and the coke produced is used in steelworks. The separated garbage and forest-wastes are mixed with dried septic-tank sludge to produce high quality compost for farms. This use of waste materials in the complex plant considerably lowers the amount of waste going to land-fills, and in addition, creates lower total emission of dioxins and carbon dioxide into the environment.