Identification of Empirical Models for the Prediction of the Plasticity Index:Case of the KhôDepression in South Benin

The plasticity index is an essential design parameter used as a standard input in fine-grained soil investigation programs.It is used to estimate the plasticity and physical properties of soils,and indirectly their strength properties.This index is determined from the Atterberg limit tests,starting from the limits of liquidity and plasticity.However,the realization of the test considered as basic and simple,is not so much.The effects of the operator,the calibration of the apparatus and the environmental aspects during the tests affect the reliability and accuracy of the results.In this paper,the objective is to overcome these difficulties by evaluating the plasticity index of clay and loam soils by considering only the values of the liquid limit.Soil samples were collected from 0 to 5 m depth in the localities of the Khôdepression in Benin.On these samples,Atterberg limit tests were performed in the laboratory.Using MATLAB’s Curve Fitting Toolbox,linear,exponential and power prediction models were analyzed.The results showed that there is indeed a good correlation between the plasticity index and the liquid limit of the soils.For the linear model,it was observed R2 equal to 0.9891.For the exponential model,R2 is 0.98871 and for the power model 0.9802.A study of the residual plot validated the models found,as well as comparisons with well-known literature sources.Through the equations obtained,it is now possible to study the plasticity of soils in the Khôdepression only from the liquid limit,without determining the plasticity limit.

Determination of the Plasticity Index of Soils with Fine-Grained Soils Using Methylene Blue Test

The amount of fine material available in the soil is significant in Atterberg limits and methylene blue tests. In the context of Atterberg limits, increased amount of clay minerals contained in the soil increases liquid and plastic limit values;however, increasing sand content reduces the moisture content reducing the water retention capacity of the soil which in return reduces the plasticity index (PI) value. In the case of methylene blue test, which is used to specify the quality of the amount of fine material, existence of clay in the medium increases the pollution level of the sand and the amount of methylene solution (V1) used. In this study, soil classes were determined and pollution rates were identified with Atterberg limits, pycnometer, sieve analysis, hydrometer analysis and methylene blue tests conducted on 11 different natural soil samples collected from different regions. From the data obtained, first the relationship between PI and methylene blue (MB) was examined and was evaluated according to the results of the “single regression” method. Furthermore, the other coefficient of uniformity (Cu), coefficient of graduation (Cc), unit weight of soils (γs) parameters obtained from experimental studies were also subjected to “multiple regression analysis” in order to reveal their impact on the MB and this impact was confirmed taking both statistical analyses into account.

Outcrops as windows to petroleum systems:Insights from the southern Bida Basin,Nigeria

The study assessed petroleum systems in the southern Bida Basin,Nigeria,focusing on the Cretaceous sediments.Reservoirs comprise Lokoja and Patti Formation sandstones,while shales,claystone,and siltstone serve as source rocks and stratigraphic traps/seals.Detailed studies delineating the key elements of the petroleum systems in the basin have not been conducted due to a lack of subsurface data.The goal of the current study was to use field observations,Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM),X-ray diffraction(XRD),and geochemical and geomechanical data to evaluate key components of petroleum systems in the southern Bida Basin.The results presented in this investigation are intended to attain specific objectives,especially those lacking in the basin's study sections.Petrophysical analysis revealed that the Lokoja Sandstone has porosity of 37%-39.5%and moderate permeability of 23.22-42.29 mD.The Patti Formation sandstone reservoirs exhibited high porosity(38%-42%)and moderate to good permeability(31.54-66.48 mD),suggesting good potential reservoirs.SEM results revealed intragranular pores and micro-fractures in the Patti Shale,whereas the sandstone reservoirs in the Lokoja and Patti formations displayed fractures,facilitating hydrocarbon migration.Quartz was the dominant mineral in the sandstone units of both formations.XRD analysis revealed that brittle and clay minerals influenced the microstructure of Patti Shale.Geochemical analysis indicated promising petroleum potential in the Patti Shale,with a total organic carbon(TOC)content of 1.87 wt%,free hydrocarbon from kerogen(S1)of 0.41 mg/g,hydrogen index(HI)of 0.75 mg HC/g TOC,and production index(PI)of 0.17.The Patti and Lokoja formations'shale,claystone,and siltstone exhibited sealing potential,with a plasticity index of 24-35 and coefficient permeability of 2.8×10^(-4)-3.6×10^(-4)cm/s.Field studies,XRD,geochemical data,and geomechanical index values have confirmed the key components of the petroleum system,which in turn facilitate hydrocarbon generation,migration,accumulation,and entrapment in the basin.

Plasticity role in strength behavior of cement-phosphogypsum stabilized soils

Dredged soil and phosphogypsum are frequently regarded as wasted materials,which require further treatment to control their environmental impact.Hence,phosphogypsum is proposed as a binder to stabilize dredged soil,aiming at efficiently reducing and reusing these waste materials.In this study,the engineering properties of cement-phosphogypsum stabilized dredged soils were investigated through a series of unconfined compression tests,and the effects of plasticity index of original soils on the strength improvement were identified.Then,the microstructure test and mineralogical test were performed to understand the mechanism of physical role of original soils in strength improvement.The results revealed that the unconfined compressive strength significantly decreased with the increase in plasticity index at the same binder content.The essential factor for strength improvement was found to be the formation of cementitious materials identified as calcium silicate hydrate(CSH),calcium aluminate hydrate(CAH),and ettringite(Aft).The normalized integrated intensity of cementitious materials(CSH+CAH+Aft)by pore volume decreased with the increase in plasticity index.Consequently,the density of cementitious materials filling the soil pores controlled the effectiveness of strength improvement.More cementitious materials per pore volume were observed for the original soils with lower values of plasticity index.That is,the higher strength of stabilized soils with lower values of plasticity index was attributed to a packed structure forming by integrated fabric through denser cementitious components.It can be anticipated from the above findings that the effectiveness of stabilization treatment will significantly reduce with the increase in plasticity of origin soil.

Plasticity of leaf morphology of Bruguiera sexangula to salinity zones in Bangladesh's Sundarbans

Bruguiera sexangula(Lour.)Poir is an exclusive evergreen mangrove species to the Sundarbans of Bangladesh.It grows well in moderate saline zones with full sunlight.This study presents leaf morphological plasticity in B.sexangula to saline zones.Leaves were sampled from different saline zones and various morphological traits were measured.The results exposed a wide deviations of leaf size parameters:leaf length varied 6.6–17.3 cm;width 2.7–7.8 cm;upper quarter width 2.2–6.5 cm;down quarter width 2.5–7.3 cm;and petiole length 0.17–1.43 cm.Leaf length was significantly larger in fresh water than in other salinity zones,whereas,leaf width,upper and lower leaf quarters were significantly larger in medium saline zone.Leaf shape parameters showed a large variation among saline zones.Leaf base angle was significantly larger in both medium and strong salinity zones.Tip angle was significantly greater in medium salinity zone.Leaf perimeter was significantly larger in fresh water but leaf area was significantly bigger in medium saline zone.Leaf index and specific leaf area were maximum in moderate saline zone.Plasticity index was the highest in moderate saline for almost all the parameters presented.The ordination(PCA)showed clusters of leaf samples although there were some overlap among them which suggested a salt-stress relationship among salinity zones.The results indicate that B.sexangula had a plasticity strategy on leaf morphological parameters to salinity in the Sundarbans.This study will provide basic information of leaf plasticity of this species among saline zones which will help for site selection of coastal planting and will also provide information for policy makers to take necessary steps for its conservation.

California Bearing Ratio for Cohesive Soils from Quasi Static Cone Tests

The California bearing ratio (CBR) test is the most widely spread method of determining the bearing strength of the pavement material and is fundamental to pavement design practice in most countries. This test is expensive, laborious and time consuming, and to overcome this, Quasi static cone penetrometer machine was fabricated and used to measure the consistency limits (liquid limit-LL, Plastic limit-PL and Plasticity index-PI), which were used to develop an empirical equation to determine CBR. Soil samples were collected and unsoaked CBR, PL, LL and PI were determined according to BS 1377 part 9 and BS 1377-2;1990. Quasi static penetration forces at 20 mm depth of penetration were also determined at consistency limits. It was found that the force of 1020 gf and 60 gf was achieved at a depth of 20 mm at PI and LL respectively. The correlation and regression analysis between consistency limits, and the experimental CBR obtained showed coefficient of determination, R2 = 0.907 between CBR and all the parameters using multiple linear regression analysis (MLRA). The regression equation developed was used together with the relationship developed between the Quasi static Penetration force at consistency limits and the tested consistency limits to come up with the General Empirical Equation. Verification of the formula showed that the correlation can be used accurately to determine the un soaked CBR.

Comparison of properties of traditional and accelerated carbonated solidified/stabilized contaminated soils

The investigation of the long-term performance of solidified/stabilized （S/S） contaminated soils was carried out in a trial site in southeast UK. The soils were exposed to the maximum natural weathering for four years and sampled at various depths in a controlled manner. The chemical properties （e.g., degree of carbonation （DOC）, pH, electrical conductivity （EC）） and physical properties （e.g., moisture content （MC）, liquid limit CLL）, plastic limit （PL）, plasticity index （PI）） of the samples untreated and treated with the traditional and accelerated carbonated S/S processes were analyzed. Their variations on the depths of the soils were also studied. The result showed that the broad geotechnical properties of the soils, manifested in their PIs, were related to the concentration of the water soluble ions and in particular the free calcium ions. The samples treated with the accelerated carbonation technology （ACT）, and the untreated samples contained limited number of free calcium ions in solutions and consequently interacted with waters in a similar way. Compared with the traditional cement-based S/S technology, e.g., treatment with ordinary portland cement （OPC） or EnvirOceM, ACT caused the increase of the PI of the treated soil and made it more stable during long-term weathering. The PI values for the four soils ascended according to the order： the EnvirOceM soil, the OPC soil, the ACT soil, and the untreated soil while their pH and EC values descended according to the same order.

Predictive plots for conical pick performance using mechanical and elastoplastic properties of rocks

Conical picks are by far the most widely used drag type cutting tools employed on partial face rock excavation machines.The cutting force and specific energy are two important design parameters for the conical pick performance,and the rock cutting testing is considered as the promising tool for determining these parameters.In the absence of an instrumented cutting rig,researchers generally rely on empirical predictive plots.For this,this paper suggests predictive plots for estimating the cutting force and specific energy,in consideration of the cutting depth to define the cuttability with conical picks.In this context,rock cutting tests were carried out on six volcanic rock samples with varying cutting depths using the unrelieved and relieved cutting modes.The cutting force and specific energy were correlated with the uniaxial compressive strength,Brazilian tensile strength,elasticity modulus,and plasticity index.Predictive plots were proposed for different cutting depths in the unrelieved and relieved cutting modes and exponential relationships were obtained among the cuttability parameters,and mechanical and elastoplastic properties of rocks.

Geotechnical Identification and Classification of Soils as Flexible Pavement Subgrade of the Section Fongo Tongo-Melong

The present study is inscribed within the framework of the geotechnical characterization of the soils of the Santchou plain, their classification for employment as pavement subgrade, various identification tests were carried out on the samples. The results obtained showed that with a wide range of different grain sizes, the studied soils showed low content in clay grains and dominance of either sand grains or silt grains, this can be explaining how most of these soil are poorly graded. According to the USDA textural classification, the grain size distribution of these soils makes them to be classified as Silty Loam types to Sandy Loam types. Despite of their organic matter content which is less than 10%, according to their respective methylene blue values, the soils studied along the section should be mainly loamy soil of medium plasticity to clayed soil, therefore showing a sensibility of its behavior to variation of water content. That last one is confirmed by the consistency parameters of these soils which show intermediate plasticity to highly plastic. Also, the bearing capacity proposed by these soils at their respective optimum dry densities is relatively small, although most of these experimental CBR values of the studied soils are more important than the ones prescribed by the AASHTO Classification system for A5, A6, and A7 types, and the French Highway Earthworks Manual Classifications system (GTR) for the corresponding A2 and A3 types.

Growth and phenotypic plasticity of two tropical tree species under low light availability

Aims Screening tree species in tropical rainforest according to their shade tolerance is important to efficiently manage the native trees of economic significance in secondary forest enrichment regimes.The objective of this study was to determine the whole-plant light compensation point(WPLCP)and compare the phenotypic plasticity in relation to growth and carbon allocation of Cariniana legalis and Gallesia integrifolia seedlings under low light availability.Methods Seedlings were cultivated for 77 days under conditions of five photosynthetically active radiation(PAR)(0.02,1.1,2.3,4.5 and 5.9 mol photons m^(−2)day^(−1))in three replicates.Growth and carbon allocation variables were determined.Important Findings Growth rates of C.legalis were higher and lower than those of G.integrifolia under 1.1 and 5.9 mol photons m^(−2)day^(−1),respectively.The WPLCP differed significantly between the two species.In accordance with the criteria of the shade tolerance classification for these two tropical tree species,our results showed that C.legalis had lower WPLCP and phenotypic plasticity in terms of higher growth rates and greater shade tolerance than G.integrifolia.From a practical point of view,we demonstrated that the differential linkage between growth and changing PAR between the two species can become a useful tool for comparing and selecting tree species in forest enrichment projects.