Optimization Control of Multi-Mode Coupling All-Wheel Drive System for Hybrid Vehicle

The all-wheel drive(AWD)hybrid system is a research focus on high-performance new energy vehicles that can meet the demands of dynamic performance and passing ability.Simultaneous optimization of the power and economy of hybrid vehicles becomes an issue.A unique multi-mode coupling(MMC)AWD hybrid system is presented to realize the distributed and centralized driving of the front and rear axles to achieve vectored distribution and full utilization of the system power between the axles of vehicles.Based on the parameters of the benchmarking model of a hybrid vehicle,the best model-predictive control-based energy management strategy is proposed.First,the drive system model was built after the analysis of the MMC-AWD’s drive modes.Next,three fundamental strategies were established to address power distribution adjustment and battery SOC maintenance when the SOC changed,which was followed by the design of a road driving force observer.Then,the energy consumption rate in the average time domain was processed before designing the minimum fuel consumption controller based on the equivalent fuel consumption coefficient.Finally,the advantage of the MMC-AWD was confirmed by comparison with the dynamic performance and economy of the BYD Song PLUS DMI-AWD.The findings indicate that,in comparison to the comparative hybrid system at road adhesion coefficients of 0.8 and 0.6,the MMC-AWD’s capacity to accelerate increases by 5.26%and 7.92%,respectively.When the road adhesion coefficient is 0.8,0.6,and 0.4,the maximum climbing ability increases by 14.22%,12.88%,and 4.55%,respectively.As a result,the dynamic performance is greatly enhanced,and the fuel savings rate per 100 km of mileage reaches 12.06%,which is also very economical.The proposed control strategies for the new hybrid AWD vehicle can optimize the power and economy simultaneously.

Implementation of Fuzzy Logic Control into an Equivalent Minimization Strategy for Adaptive Energy Management of A Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle

As government agencies continue to tighten emissions regulations due to the continued increase in greenhouse gas production, automotive industries are seeking to produce increasingly efficient vehicle technology. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have been introduced to mitigate problems while improving fuel economy. HEVs have led to the demand of creating more advanced controls software to consider multiple components for propulsive power in a vehicle. A large section in the software development process is the implementation of an optimal energy management strategy meant to improve the overall fuel efficiency of the vehicle. Optimal strategies can be implemented when driving conditions are known a prior. The Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is an optimal control strategy that uses an equivalence factor to equate electrical to mechanical power when performing torque split determination between the internal combustion engine and electric motor for propulsive and regenerative torque. This equivalence factor is determined from offline vehicle simulations using a sensitivity analysis to provide optimal fuel economy results while maintaining predetermined high voltage battery state of charge (SOC) constraints. When the control hierarchy is modified or different driving styles are applied, the analysis must be redone to update the equivalence factor. The goal of this work is to implement a fuzzy logic controller that dynamically updates the equivalence factor to improve fuel economy, maintain a strict charge sustaining window of operation for the high voltage battery, and reduce computational time required during algorithm development. The adaptive algorithm is validated against global optimum fuel economy and charge sustaining results from a sensitivity analysis performed for multiple drive cycles. Results show a maximum fuel economy improvement of 9.82% when using a mild driving style and a 95% success rate when maintaining an ending SOC within 5% of the desired SOC regardless of starting SOC.

The Future Trend of E-Mobility in Terms of Battery Electric Vehicles and Their Impact on Climate Change: A Case Study Applied in Hungary

The transportation sector is responsible for 25% of the total Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, whereas 60.6% of this sector represents small and medium passenger cars. However, as noted by the European Union Long-term strategy, there are two ways to reduce the amount of CO2 emissions in the transportation sector. The first way is characterized by creating more efficient vehicles. In contrast, the second way is characterized by changing the fuel used. The current study addressed the second way, changing the fuel type. The study examined the potential of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as an alternative fuel type to reduce CO2 emissions in Hungarys transportation sector. The study used secondary data retrieved from Statista and stata.com to analyze the future trends of BEVs in Hungary. The results showed that the percentage of BEVs in Hungary in 2022 was 0.4% compared to the total number of registered passenger cars, which is 3.8 million. The simple exponential smoothing (SES) time series forecast revealed that the number of BEVs is expected to reach 84,192 in 2030, indicating a percentage increase of 2.21% in the next eight years. The study suggests that increasing the number of BEVs is necessary to address the negative impact of CO2 emissions on society. The Hungarian Ministry of Innovation and Technologys strategy to reduce the cost of BEVs may increase the percentage of BEVs by 10%, resulting in a potential average reduction of 76,957,600 g/km of CO2 compared to gasoline, diesel, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs).

Ballistic design and testing of a composite armour reinforced by CNTs suitable for armoured vehicles

This paper is investigating the use of composite armour reinforced by nanomaterials, for the protection of light armoured(LAV) and medium armoured military vehicles(MAV), and the interaction between the composite materials and high-performance ballistic projectiles. Four armour materials, consisted of front hybrid fibre reinforced polymer cover layer, ceramic strike-face, fibre reinforced polymer intermediate layer and the metal matrix composite reinforced backplate, were manufactured and assembled by adhesive technology. The proposed laminated protection system is suitable for armoured ground vehicles;however, it could be used as armour on ground, air and naval platforms. The design of the protection system, including material selection and thickness, was elaborated depending on the performance requirements of Level 4 + STANAG 4569 military standard(projectile 14.5 mm × 114 mm API B32) and especially on a design philosophy which is analysed with the specifications. The backplate of this new composite is a hybrid material of Metal Matrix Composite(MMC) reinforced with carbon nanotubes(CNTs), manufactured with the use of powder metallurgy technique. The composite backplate material was morphologically, mechanically and chemically analysed. Results show that all plates are presenting high mechanical properties and ballistic characteristics, compared to commonly used armour plates. Real military ballistic tests according to AEP-STANAG 4569 were carried out for the total composite armour systems. After the ballistic tests, AA2024-CNT3 showed the best protection results, compared with the other plates(AA2024-CNT1 and AA2024-CNT2), with the projectile being unable to fully penetrate the composite plate.

Modeling and Control of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle Using Sea-Lion Optimization

This paper develops a parallel hybrid electric vehicle(PHEV)propor-tional integral controller with driving cycle.To improve fuel efficiency and reduce hazardous emissions in hybrid electric vehicles(HEVs)combine an electric motor(EM),a battery and an internal combustion engine(ICE).The electric motor assists the engine when accelerating,driving longer highways or climbing hills.This enables the use of a smaller,more efficient engine.It also makes use of the concept of regenerative braking to maximize energy efficiency.In a Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV),energy dissipated while braking is utilized to charge the battery.The proportional integral controller was used in this paper to analyze engine,motor performance and the New European Driving Cycle(NEDC)was used in the vehicle driving test using Matlab/Simulink.The proportional integral controllers were designed to track the desired vehicle speed and manage the vehi-cle’s energyflow.The Sea Lion Optimization(SLnO)methods were created to reduce fuel consumption in a parallel hybrid electric vehicle and the results were obtained for the New European Driving Cycle.

An optimal energy management development for various configuration of plug-in and hybrid electric vehicle

Due to soaring fuel prices and environmental concerns, hybrid electric vehicle(HEV) technology attracts more attentions in last decade. Energy management system, configuration of HEV and traffic conditions are the main factors which affect HEV's fuel consumption, emission and performance. Therefore, optimal management of the energy components is a key element for the success of a HEV. An optimal energy management system is developed for HEV based on genetic algorithm. Then, different powertrain system component combinations effects are investigated in various driving cycles. HEV simulation results are compared for default rule-based, fuzzy and GA-fuzzy controllers by using ADVISOR. The results indicate the effectiveness of proposed optimal controller over real world driving cycles. Also, an optimal powertrain configuration to improve fuel consumption and emission efficiency is proposed for each driving condition. Finally, the effects of batteries in initial state of charge and hybridization factor are investigated on HEV performance to evaluate fuel consumption and emissions. Fuel consumption average reduction of about 14% is obtained for optimal configuration data in contrast to default configuration. Also results indicate that proposed controller has reduced emission of about 10% in various traffic conditions.

Energy Control of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using Model Predictive Control With Route Preview

The paper proposes an adoption of slope,elevation,speed and route distance preview to achieve optimal energymanagement of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles(PHEVs).Theapproach is to identify route features from historical and real-time traffic data,in which information fusion model and trafficprediction model are used to improve the information accuracy.Then,dynamic programming combined with equivalent con-sumption minimization strategy is used to compute an optimalsolution for real-time energy management.The solution is thereference for PHEV energy management control along the route.To improve the system's ability of handling changing situation,the study further explores predictive control model in the real-time control of the energy.A simulation is performed to modelPHEV under above energy control strategy with route preview.The results show that the average fuel consumption of PHEValong the previewed route with model predictive control(MPC)strategy can be reduced compared with optimal strategy andbase control strategy.

Simulation research of energy management strategy for dual mode plug-in hybrid electrical vehicles

In this paper, a plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle(PHEV) is taken as the research object, and its dynamic performance and economic performance are taken as the research goals. Battery charge-sustaining(CS) period is divided into power mode and economy mode. Energy management strategy designing methods of power mode and economy mode are proposed. Maximum velocity, acceleration performance and fuel consumption are simulated during the CS period in the AVL CRUISE simulation environment. The simulation results indicate that the maximum velocity and acceleration time of the power mode are better than those in the economy mode. Fuel consumption of the economy mode is better than that in the power mode. Fuel consumption of PHEV during the CS period is further improved by using the methods proposed in this paper, and this is meaningful for research and development of PHEV.

Novel flexible hybrid electric system and adaptive online-optimal energy management controller for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

In order to achieve the improvement of the driving comfort and energy efficiency,an new e-CVT flexible full hybrid electric system(E2FHS) is proposed,which uses an integrated main drive motor and generator to take the place of the original automatic or manual transmission to realize the functions of continuously variable transmission(e-CVT).The design and prototype realization of the E2FHS system for a plug-in hybrid vehicle(PHEV) is performed.In order to analyze and optimize the parameters and the power flux between different parts of the E2FHS,simulation software is developed.Especially,in order to optimize the performance of the energy economy improvement of the E2FHS,the effect of the different energy management controllers is investigated,and an adaptive online-optimal energy management controller for the E2FHS is built and validated by the prototype PHEV.

Analysis of Hybrid Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems in Series Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Simulations

In this paper, an extended analysis of the performance of different hybrid Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems (RESS) for use in Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) with a series drivetrain topology is analyzed, based on simulations with three different driving cycles. The investigated hybrid energy storage topologies are an energy optimized lithium-ion battery (HE) in combination with an Electrical Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC) system, in combination with a power optimized lithium-ion battery (HP) system or in combination with a Lithium-ion Capacitor (LiCap) system, that act as a Peak Power System. From the simulation results it was observed that hybridization of the HE lithium-ion based energy storage system resulted from the three topologies in an increased overall energy efficiency of the RESS, in an extended all electric range of the PHEV and in a reduced average current through the HE battery. The lowest consumption during the three driving cycles was obtained for the HE-LiCap topology, where fuel savings of respectively 6.0%, 10.3% and 6.8% compared with the battery stand-alone system were achieved. The largest extension of the range was achieved for the HE-HP configuration (17% based on FTP-75 driving cycle). HP batteries however have a large internal resistance in comparison to EDLC and LiCap systems, which resulted in a reduced overall energy efficiency of the hybrid RESS. Additionally, it was observed that the HP and LiCap systems both offer significant benefits for the integration of a peak power system in the drivetrain of a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle due to their low volume and weight in comparison to that of the EDLC system.

Design and Analysis of Electro-mechanical Hybrid Anti-lock Braking System for Hybrid Electric Vehicle Utilizing Motor Regenerative Braking

Braking on low adhesion-coefficient roads, hybrid electric vehicle＇s motor regenerative torque is switched off to safeguard the normal anti-lock braking system （ABS） fimction. When the ABS control is terminated, the motor regenerative braking is readmitted. Aiming at avoiding permanent cycles from hydraulic anti-lock braking to motor regenerative braking, a novel electro-mechanical hybrid anti-lock braking system using fuzzy logic is designed. Different from the traditional single control structure, this system has a two-layered hierarchical structure, The first layer is responsible for harmonious adjustment or interaction between regenerative system and anti-lock braking system. The second layer is responsible for braking torque distribution and adjustment. The closed-loop simulation model is built. Control strategy and method for coordination between regenerative and anti-lock braking are developed. Simulation braking on low adhesion-coefficient roads with fuzzy logic control and real vehicle braking field test are presented. The results from simulating analysis and experiment show braking performance of the vehicle is perfect, harmonious coordination between regenerative and anti-lock braking function, significant amount of braking energy can be recovered and the proposed control strategy and method are effective.

Parameters Matching and Control Method of Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles with Secondary Regulation Technology

Hydraulic hybrid vehicles （HHV） with secondary regulation technology has the potential of improving fuel economy by operating the engine in the optimum efficiency range and making use of regenerative braking. Hydrostatic transmission technology has the advantage of higher power density and the ability to accept the high rates and high frequencies of charging and discharging, both of which are not favorable for batteries, but the lower energy density requires special power matching design and control strategy to coordinate all the powertrain components in an optimal manner. A multi-objective optimization method is proposed to distinguish the components size values of HHV by considering the requirements of driving cycles and technology aspects. The regenerative braking strategy and energy control strategy based on the optimized HHV is proposed to recovery the braking energy and distribute the regenerated braking energy. Simulation results show that by taking the optimized configuration of HHV, adopting the regenerative braking strategy and energy control strategy are helpful to improve the system efficiency and fuel economy of HHV under urban driving cycles.

Series-parallel Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy Design and Optimization Using Real-valued Genetic Algorithm

Despite the series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle inherits the performance advantages from both series and parallel hybrid electric vehicle, few researches about the series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle have been revealed because of its complex co nstruction and control strategy. In this paper, a series-parallel hybrid electric bus as well as its control strategy is revealed, and a control parameter optimization approach using the real-valued genetic algorithm is proposed. The optimization objective is to minimize the fuel consumption while sustain the battery state of charge, a tangent penalty function of state of charge（SOC） is embodied in the objective function to recast this multi-objective nonlinear optimization problem as a single linear optimization problem. For this strategy, the vehicle operating mode is switched based on the vehicle speed, and an ＂optimal line＂ typed strategy is designed for the parallel control. The optimization parameters include the speed threshold for mode switching, the highest state of charge allowed, the lowest state of charge allowed and the scale factor of the engine optimal torque to the engine maximum torque at a rotational speed. They are optimized through numerical experiments based on real-value genes, arithmetic crossover and mutation operators. The hybrid bus has been evaluated at the Chinese Transit Bus City Driving Cycle via road test, in which a control area network-based monitor system was used to trace the driving schedule. The test result shows that this approach is feasible for the control parameter optimization. This approach can be applied to not only the novel construction presented in this paper, but also other types of hybrid electric vehicles.

Synthetical Efficiency-based Optimization for the Power Distribution of Power-split Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Now the optimization strategies for power distribution are researched widely, and most of them are aiming to the optimal fuel economy and the driving cycle must be preknown. Thus if the actual driving condition deviates from the scheduled driving cycle, the effect of optimal results will be declined greatly. Therefore, the instantaneous optimization strategy carried out on-line is studied in this paper. The power split path and the transmission efficiency are analyzed based on a special power-split scheme and the efficiency models of the power transmitting components are established. The synthetical efficiency optimization model is established for enhancing the transmission efficiency and the fuel economy. The identification of the synthetical efficiency as the optimization objective and the constrain group are discussed emphatically. The optimization is calculated by the adaptive simulated annealing （ASA） algorithm and realized on-line by the radial basis function （RBF）-based similar models. The optimization for power distribution of the hybrid vehicle in an actual driving condition is carried out and the road test results are presented. The test results indicate that the synthetical efficiency optimization method can enhance the transmission efficiency and the fuel economy of the power-split hybrid electric vehicle （HEV） observably. Compared to the rules-based strategy the optimization strategy is optimal and achieves the approximate global optimization solution for the power distribution. The synthetical efficiency optimization solved by ASA algorithm can give attentions to both optimization quality and calculation efficiency, thus it has good application foreground for the power distribution of power-split HEV.

OPTIMIZATION APPROACH FOR HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE POWERTRAIN DESIGN

According to bench test results of fuel economy and engine emission for thereal power-train system of EQ7200HEV car. a 3-D performance map oriented quasi-linear model isdeveloped for the configuration of the powertrain components such as internal combustion engine,traction electric motor, transmission, main retarder and energy storage unit. A genetic algorithmbased on optimization procedure is proposed and applied for parametric optimization of the keycomponents by consideration of requirements of some driving cycles. Through comparison of numericalresults obtained by the genetic algorithm with those by traditional optimization methods, it isshown that the present approach is quite effective and efficient in emission reduction and fueleconomy for the design of the hybrid electric car powertrain.

Online Learning Control for Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Improvements in hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) fuel economy and emissions heavily depend on an efficient energy management strategy (EMS). However, the uncertainty of future driving conditions generally cannot be easily tackled in EMS design. Most existing EMSs act upon fixed parameters and cannot adapt to varying driving conditions. Therefore, they usually fail to fully explore the potential of these advanced vehicles. In this paper, a novel EMS design procedure based on neural dynamic programming (NDP) is proposed. The NDP is a generic online learning algorithm, which combines stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) and the temporal difference (TD) method. Instead of computing the utility function and optimal control actions through Bellman equations, the NDP algorithm uses two neural networks to approximate them. The weights of these neural networks are updated online by the TD method. It avoids the high computational cost that SDP suffers from and is suitable for real-time implementation. The main advantages of NDP EMS is that it does not rely on prior information related to future driving conditions, and can self-tune with a wide variance in operating conditions. The NDP EMS has been applied to “Qianghua-I”, a prototype of a parallel HEV, using a revolving drum test bench for verification. Experiment results illustrate the potential of the proposed EMS in terms of fuel economy and in keeping state of charge (SOC) deviations at a low level. The proposed research ensures the optimality of NDP EMS, as well as real-time applicability.

A comprehensive review on hybrid electric vehicles: architectures and components

The rapid consumption of fossil fuel and increased environmental damage caused by it have given a strong impetus to the growth and development of fuelefficient vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have evolved from their inchoate state and are proving to be a promising solution to the serious existential problem posed to the planet earth. Not only do HEVs provide better fuel economy and lower emissions satisfying environmental legislations, but also they dampen the effect of rising fuel prices on consumers. HEVs combine the drive powers of an internal combustion engine and an electrical machine. The main components of HEVs are energy storage system, motor, bidirectional converter and maximum power point trackers (MPPT, in case of solar-powered HEVs). The performance of HEVs greatly depends on these components and its architecture. This paper presents an extensive review on essential components used in HEVs such as their architectures with advantages and disadvantages, choice of bidirectional converter to obtain high efficiency, combining ultracapacitor with battery to extend the battery life, traction motors’ role and their suitability for a particular application. Inclusion of photovoltaic cell in HEVs is a fairly new concept and has been discussed in detail. Various MPPT techniques used for solar-driven HEVs are also discussed in this paper with their suitability.

STEADY-STATE AND IDLE OPTIMIZA-TION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

A novel steady-state optimization （SSO） of internal combustion engine （ICE） strategy is proposed to maximize the efficiency of the overall powertrain for hybrid electric vehicles, in which the ICE efficiency, the efficiencies of the electric motor （EM） and the energy storage device are all explicitly taken into account. In addition, a novel idle optimization of ICE strategy is implemented to obtain the optimal idle operating point of the ICE and corresponding optimal parking generation power of the EM using the view of the novel SSO of ICE strategy. Simulations results show that potential fuel economy improvement is achieved relative to the conventional one which only optimized the ICE efficiency by the novel SSO of ICE strategy, and fuel consumption per voltage increment decreases a lot during the parking charge by the novel idle optimization of ICE strategy.

A Hybrid Approach to Modeling and Control of Vehicle Height for Electronically Controlled Air Suspension

The control problems associated with vehicle height adjustment of electronically controlled air suspension （ECAS） still pose theoretical challenges for researchers, which manifest themselves in the publications on this subject over the last years. This paper deals with modeling and control of a vehicle height adjustment system for ECAS, which is an example of a hybrid dynamical system due to the coexistence and coupling of continuous variables and discrete events. A mixed logical dynamical （MLD） modeling approach is chosen for capturing enough details of the vehicle height adjustment process. The hybrid dynamic model is constructed on the basis of some assumptions and piecewise linear approximation for components nonlinearities. Then, the on-off statuses of solenoid valves and the piecewise approximation process are described by propositional logic, and the hybrid system is transformed into the set of linear mixed-integer equalities and inequalities, denoted as MLD model, automatically by HYSDEL. Using this model, a hybrid model predictive controller （HMPC） is tuned based on online mixed-integer quadratic optimization （MIQP）. Two different scenarios are considered in the simulation, whose results verify the height adjustment effectiveness of the proposed approach. Explicit solutions of the controller are computed to control the vehicle height adjustment system in realtime using an offline multi-parametric programming technology （MPT）, thus convert the controller into an equivalent explicit piecewise affine form. Finally, bench experiments for vehicle height lifting, holding and lowering procedures are conducted, which demonstrate that the HMPC can adjust the vehicle height by controlling the on-off statuses of solenoid valves directly. This research proposes a new modeling and control method for vehicle height adjustment of ECAS, which leads to a closed-loop system with favorable dynamical properties.