Acute pathological changes of facial nucleus and expressions of postsynaptic density protein-95 following facial nerve injury of varying severity A semi-quantitative analysis

BACKGROUND： Previous studies have demonstrated that postsynaptic density protein-95 （PSD-95） is widely distributed in the central nervous system and is related to the development of the CNS and sensory signal transmission as well as acute or chronic nerve cell death following ischemic brain injury. OBJECTIVE： To semi-quantitatively determine the pathological changes of apoptotic facial neurons and the expression of PSD-95 in the facial nucleus following facial nerve injury of varying extents using immunohistochemical staining methods. DESIGN, TIME AND SETTING： Randomized, controlled animal experiments were performed in the Ultrasonic Institute of the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing University of Medical Sciences from September to December 2007. MATERIALS： Sixty-five healthy, adult, Sprague-Dawley （SD） rats, both male and female, were used for this study. Rabbit anti-rat PSD-95 polyclonal antibody was purchased from Beijing Biosynthesis Biotechnology Co., Ltd. METHODS： SD rats were randomly assigned into a control group with five rats and three injured groups with 20 rats per group. Exposure, clamp and cut for bilateral facial nerve trunks were performed in the rats of the injury groups, and no injury was inflicted on the rats of the control group. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES; The brainstems of all the rats were excised on days 1, 3, 7, and 14 post injury, and then the facial nuclei were stained with hematoxylin-eosin to observe any pathological changes due to apoptosis in facial neurons. PSD-95 expression in facial nuclei was detected by immunohistochemistry and the number of PSD-95 positive cells was counted under a light microscope. RESULTS： The expression of PSD-95 in the facial nucleus and morphology of the facial neuron within the exposure group had no obvious changes at various points in time tested （P 〉 0.05）. However, the expressions of PSD-95 in the facial nucleus of the clamp group and cut group increased on day 1 post injury （P 〈 0.05）, and showed further increase on day 7 post injury （P 〈 0.01 ）. This did not decrease until day 14 post injury. Facial neuron apoptosis was detected on day 3 post injury and this was even more obvious on day 7 and was maintained to day 14 post injury. The number of cells expressing PSD-95 and displaying severe degrees of facial neuron apoptosis were as follows： cut group 〉 clamp group 〉 exposure group. CONCLUSION： The apoptotic extent of facial neurons and the expression of PSD-95 in apoptotic facial neurons increased with the degree of aggravation of injured severity of facial nerve.

Knock-down of postsynaptic density protein 95 expression by antisense oligonucleotides protects against apoptosis-like cell death induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation in vitro

Objective Postsynaptic density protein 95 （PSD-95） plays important roles in the regulation of glutamate signaling, such as that of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors （NMDARs）. In this study, the functional roles of PSD-95 in tyrosine phosphorylafion of NMDAR subunit 2A （NR2A） and in apoptosis-like cell death induced by oxygen-glucose de- privation （OGD） in cultured rat cortical neurons were investigated. Methods We used immunoprecipitation and immuno- blotting to detect PSD-95 protein level, tyrosine phosphorylation level of NR2A, and the interaction between PSD-95 and NR2A or Src. Apoptosis-like cells were observed by 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining. Results Tyrosine phospho- rylation of NR2A and apoptosis-like cell death were increased after recovery following 60-min OGD. The increases were attenuated by pretreatment with antisense oligonucleotides against PSD-95 before OGD, but not by missense oligonucle- otides or vehicle. PSD-95 antisense oligonucleotides also inhibited the increased interaction between PSD-95 and NR2A or Src, while NR2A expression did not change under this condition. Conclusion PSD-95 may be involved in regulating NR2A tyrosine phosphorylation by Src kinase. Inhibition of PSD-95 expression can be neuroprotective against apoptosis- like cell death after recovery from OGD.

Targeting TrkB–PSD-95 coupling to mitigate neurological disorders

Tropomyosin receptor kinase B(TrkB)signaling plays a pivotal role in dendritic growth and dendritic spine formation to promote learning and memory.The activity-dependent release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor at synapses binds to pre-or postsynaptic TrkB resulting in the strengthening of synapses,reflected by long-term potentiation.Postsynaptically,the association of postsynaptic density protein-95 with TrkB enhances phospholipase Cγ-Ca^(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinaseⅡand phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-mechanistic target of rapamycin signaling required for long-term potentiation.In this review,we discuss TrkB-postsynaptic density protein-95 coupling as a promising strategy to magnify brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling towards the development of novel therapeutics for specific neurological disorders.A reduction of TrkB signaling has been observed in neurodegenerative disorders,such as Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease,and enhancement of postsynaptic density protein-95 association with TrkB signaling could mitigate the observed deficiency of neuronal connectivity in schizophrenia and depression.Treatment with brain-derived neurotrophic factor is problematic,due to poor pharmacokinetics,low brain penetration,and side effects resulting from activation of the p75 neurotrophin receptor or the truncated TrkB.T1 isoform.Although TrkB agonists and antibodies that activate TrkB are being intensively investigated,they cannot distinguish the multiple human TrkB splicing isoforms or cell type-specific functions.Targeting TrkB–postsynaptic density protein-95 coupling provides an alternative approach to specifically boost TrkB signaling at localized synaptic sites versus global stimulation that risks many adverse side effects.

High-frequency (50 Hz) electroacupuncture ameliorates cognitive impairment in rats with amyloid beta 1–42-induced Alzheimer＇s disease

Acupuncture has been shown to ameliorate cognitive impairment of Alzheimer’s disease.Acupoints and stimulation frequency influence the therapeutic effect of electroacupuncture.Rat models of Alzheimer’s disease were established by injecting amyloid beta 1–42（Aβ_（1–42））into the bilateral lateral ventricles.Electroacupuncture at 2,30,and 50 Hz was carried out at Baihui（GV20;15°obliquely to a depth of 2mm）and Shenshu（BL23;perpendicularly to 4–6 mm depth）,once a day for 20 minutes（each）,for 15 days,taking a break every 7 days.The Morris water maze test was conducted to assess the learning and memory.The expression levels of glycogen synthase kinase-3β（GSK-3β）,p Ser9-GSK-3β,p Tyr216-GSK-3β,amyloid precursor protein and Aβ_（1–40） in the hippocampus were determined by western blot assay.Results demonstrated that electroacupuncture treatment at different frequencies markedly improved learning and memory ability,increased synaptic curvatures,decreased the width of synaptic clefts,thickened postsynaptic densities,and downregulated the expression of GSK-3β,amyloid precursor protein,and Aβ_（1–40）.pSer9-GSK-3βexpression markedly decreased,while p Tyr216-GSK-3βexpression increased.High-frequency（50 Hz）electroacupuncture was more effective than low（2 Hz）or medium-frequency（30 Hz）electroacupuncture.In conclusion,electroacupuncture treatment exerts a protective effect against Aβ_（1–42）-induced learning and memory deficits and synapse-ultrastructure impairment via inhibition of GSK-3βactivity.Moreover,high-frequency electroacupuncture was the most effective therapy.

Beta 2-adrenergic receptor activation enhances neurogenesis in Alzheimer's disease mice

Impaired hippocampal neurogenesis is one of the early pathological features of Alzheimer＇s disease. Enhancing adult hippocampal neuro- genesis has been pursued as a potential therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer＇s disease. Recent studies have demonstrated that environmental novelty activates β2-adrenergic signaling and prevents the memory impairment induced by amyloid-β oligomers. Here, we hypothesized that β2-adrenoceptor activation would enhance neurogenesis and ameliorate memory deficits in Alzheimer＇s disease. To test this hypothe- sis, we investigated the effects and mechanisms of action of β2-adrenoceptor activation on neurogenesis and memory in amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 （APP/PS1） mice using the agonist clenbuterol （intraperitoneal injection, 2 mg/kg）. We found that β2-adrenoceptor ac- tivation enhanced hippocampal neurogenesis, ameliorated memory deficits, and increased dendritic branching and the density of dendritic spines, lhese effects were associated with the upregulation of postsynaptic density 95, synapsin 1 and synaptophysin in APP/PS1 mice. Furthermore, β2-adrenoceptor activation decreased cerebral amyloid plaques by decreasing APP phosphorylation at Thr668. These findings suggest that β2-adrenoceptor activation enhances neurogenesis and ameliorates memory deficits in APP/PS 1 mice.

Protective effects of Bushen Tiansui decoction on hippocampal synapses in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease

Bushen Tiansui decoction is composed of six traditional Chinese medicines：Herba Epimedii,Radix Polygoni multiflori,Plastrum testudinis,Fossilia Ossis Mastodi,Radix Polygalae,and Rhizoma Acorus tatarinowii.Because Bushen Tiansui decoction is effective against amyloid beta（Aβ） toxicity,we hypothesized that it would reduce hippocampal synaptic damage and improve cognitive function in Alzheimer＇s disease.To test this hypothesis,we used a previously established animal model of Alzheimer＇s disease,that is,microinjection of aggregated Aβ25–35 into the bilateral brain ventricles of Sprague-Dawley rats.We found that long-term（28 days） oral administration of Bushen Tiansui decoction（0.563,1.688,and 3.375 g/m L;4 m L/day） prevented synaptic loss in the hippocampus and increased the expression levels of synaptic proteins,including postsynaptic density protein 95,the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 2 B subunit,and Shank1.These results suggested that Bushen Tiansui decoction can protect synapses by maintaining the expression of these synaptic proteins.Bushen Tiansui decoction also ameliorated measures reflecting spatial learning and memory deficits that were observed in the Morris water maze（i.e.,increased the number of platform crossings and the amount of time spent in the target quadrant and decreased escape latency） following intraventricular injections of aggregated Aβ25–35 compared with those measures in untreated Aβ_（25–35）-injected rats.Overall,these results provided evidence that further studies on the prevention and treatment of dementia with this traditional Chinese medicine are warranted.

Effects of electromagnetic radiation on spatial memory and synapses in rat hippocampal CA1

In this study, we investigated the effects of mobile phone radiation on spatial learning, reference memory, and morphology in related brain regions. After the near-field radiation （0.52 1.08 W/kg） was delivered to 8-week-old Wistar rats 2 hours per day for 1 month, behavioral changes were examined using the Morris water maze. Compared with the sham-irradiated rats, the irradiated rats exhibited impaired performance. Morphological changes were investigated by examining synaptic ultrastructural changes in the hippocampus. Using the physical dissector technique, the number of pyramidal neurons, the synaptic profiles, and the length of postsynaptic densities in the CA1 region were quantified stereologically. The morphological changes included mitochondrial degenerations, fewer synapses, and shorter postsynaptic densities in the radiated rats. These findings indicate that mobile phone radiation can significantly impair spatial learning and reference memory and induce morphological changes in the hippocampal CA1 region.

Thrombospondin 1 promotes synaptic formation in bone marrow-derived neuron-like cells

In this study, a combination of growth factors was used to induce bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells differentiation into neuron-like cells, in a broader attempt to observe the role of thrombospondin 1 in synapse formation. Results showed that there was no significant difference in the differentiation rate of neuron-like cells between bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells with thrombospondin induction and those without. However, the cell shape was more complex and the neurites were dendritic, with unipolar, bipolar or multipolar morphologies, after induction with thrombospondin 1. The induced cells were similar in morphology to normal neurites. Immunohistochemical staining showed that the number of positive cells for postsynaptic density protein 95 and synaptophysin 1 protein was significantly increased after induction with thrombospondin 1. These findings indicate that thrombospondin 1 promotes synapse formation in neuron-like cells that are differentiated from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells.

Correlation between synaptic protein expression and synaptic reorganization in the hippocampal CA3 region in a rat model of post-traumatic epilepsy

Postsynaptic density protein-95 and synaptophysin participate in synaptic reorganization in the forebrain of epilepsy models. However, the time-effect relationship between dynamic synapsin expression in hippocampus and synaptic reorganization in the post-traumatic epilepsy model remains unclear. FeCI2 was injected into the hippocampal CA3 region of the right forebrain in rats to induce post-traumatic epilepsy. Postsynaptic density protein-95 and synaptophysin expression was detected using immunohistochemistry. Epileptiform discharge induced by FeCI2 injection was determined in rat forebrain neurons, revealing decreased postsynaptic density protein-95 expression at 24 hours and lowest levels at 7 days. Synaptophysin expression was markedly reduced at 24 hours, but increased at 7 days. Postsynaptic density protein-95 and synaptophysin expression was consistent with abnormal mossy fiber sprouting and synaptic reorganization following neuronal injury in the hippocampal CA3 region of FeCI2-induced epilepsy models.

Liquid-liquid phase separation in biology: mechanisms,physiological functions and human diseases

Cells are compartmentalized by numerous membrane-enclosed organelles and membraneless compartments to ensure that a wide variety of cellular activities occur in a spatially and temporally controlled manner. The molecular mechanisms underlying the dynamics of membrane-bound organelles, such as their fusion and fission, vesicle-mediated trafficking and membrane contactmediated inter-organelle interactions, have been extensively characterized. However, the molecular details of the assembly and functions of membraneless compartments remain elusive. Mounting evidence has emerged recently that a large number of membraneless compartments, collectively called biomacromolecular condensates, are assembled via liquid-liquid phase separation(LLPS). Phase-separated condensates participate in various biological activities, including higher-order chromatin organization,gene expression, triage of misfolded or unwanted proteins for autophagic degradation, assembly of signaling clusters and actin-and microtubule-based cytoskeletal networks, asymmetric segregations of cell fate determinants and formation of pre-and post-synaptic density signaling assemblies. Biomacromolecular condensates can transition into different material states such as gel-like structures and solid aggregates. The material properties of condensates are crucial for fulfilment of their distinct functions, such as biochemical reaction centers, signaling hubs and supporting architectures. Cells have evolved multiple mechanisms to ensure that biomacromolecular condensates are assembled and disassembled in a tightly controlled manner. Aberrant phase separation and transition are causatively associated with a variety of human diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases and cancers. This review summarizes recent major progress in elucidating the roles of LLPS in various biological pathways and diseases.