Mechanical and ballistic properties of powder metal 7039 aluminium alloy joined by friction stir welding

7039 Al alloy plates which were used as armor materials were produced by powder metallurgy method. The prepared mixed powders were pressed and plated by extrusion process. These plates, after being subjected to T6 heat treatment, were joined double-sided by friction stir welding method. Microstructure and microhardness of the welded plate were investigated. It was determined that the finest grain structure and the lowest hardness value occurred in the stir zone as 2-6 mm and HV 80.9, respectively. In order to determine the ballistic properties of welded plates, 7.62 mm armor piercing projectiles were shot to the base metal（BM）, heat affected zone（HAZ）, and thermomechanically affected zone＋stir zone（TMAZ＋SZ）. Ballistic limits（v_（50）） of these zones were determined. The ballistic limits of the BM, TMAZ＋SZ, and HAZ of the plate were approximately 14.7%, 15.3%, and 17.9% lower than that of the standard plate at the same thickness, respectively. It was determined that the armor piercing projectiles created petaling and ductile hole enlargement failure types at the armor plate. Ballistic and mechanical results can be enhanced by hot-cold rolling mills after extrusion and particle reinforcement.

Fabrication of homogeneously dispersed graphene/Al composites by solution mixing and powder metallurgy

Graphene-reinforced aluminum （AI） matrix composites were successfully prepared via solution mixing and powder metallurgy in this study. The mechanical properties of the composites were studied using microhardness and tensile tests. Compared to the pure Al alloy, the graphene/Al composites showed increased strength and hardness. A tensile strength of 255 MPa was achieved for the graphene/Al com- posite with only 0.3wt% graphene, which has a 25% increase over the tensile strength of the pure Al matrix. Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used to investigate the morphol- ogies, chemical compositions, and microstructures of the graphene and the graphene/A1 composites. On the basis of fractographic evidence, a relevant fracture mechanism is proposed.

Synthesis and forming behavior of aluminium-based hybrid powder metallurgic composites

Aluminium-based metal matrix composites were synthesized from Al-TiO2-Gr powder mixtures using the powder metallurgy technique and their forming characteristics were studied during cold upsetting. Green cylindrical compacts of pure Al, Al-5wt%TiO2, Al-5wt%TiO2-2wt%Gr, and Al-5wt%TiO2-4wt%Gr were made using a 400-kN hydraulic press equipped with suitable punch and die and by sintering at （590 ± 10）°C for 3 h. Cold upset forging tests were carried out, the true axial stress （σz）, the true hoop stress （σ？）, and the true hy-drostatic stress （σm） were evaluated and, their behavior against the true axial strain （εz） was also analyzed. It is observed that the addition of 5wt%TiO2 into the Al matrix increasesσz,σ？, andσm. The addition of both TiO2 and Gr reinforcements reduces the densification and defor-mation characteristics of the sintered preforms during cold upsetting. Microstructure analyses of the as-sintered and cold upset forged speci-mens also were carried out to substantiate the experimental results.

Corrosion properties in a simulated body fluid of Mg/β-TCP composites prepared by powder metallurgy

Magnesium matrix composites （MMC） reinforced with 5wt% tricalcium phosphate （TCP） particles were prepared by powder metallurgy. Pure magnesium （CP-Mg） was fabricated by the same procedure for comparison. Scanning electron microscopy and en- ergy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analyses revealed that TCP particles were distributed homogeneously in the MMC. In order to investi- gate the corrosion properties, MMC samples were immersed in a simulated body fluid （SBF） at 310~0.5 K for 72 h. The mass loss of the samples in SBF and the pH values of the SBF were evaluated. Moreover, electrochemical measurements were conducted in the SBF. It was shown that the corrosion rate of the MMC decreased with the addition of TCP compared with CP-Mg. Hydroxyapatite was formed on the surface of MMC samples after immersion in the SBF for 72 h but not on the surface of CP-Mg.

Development of Cu-Exfoliated Graphite Nanoplatelets (xGnP) Metal Matrix Composite by Powder Metallurgy Route

In the present investigation the possibility of using exfoliated graphite nanoplatelets (xGnP) as reinforcement in order to enhance the mechanical properties of Cu-based metal matrix composites is explored. Cu-based metal matrix composites reinforced with different amounts of xGnP were fabricated by powder metallurgy route. The microstructure, sliding wear behaviour and mechanical properties of the Cu-xGnP composites were investigated. xGnP has been synthesized from the graphite intercalation compounds (GIC) through rapid evaporation of the intercalant at an elevated temperature. The thermally exfoliated graphite was later sonicated for a period of 5 h in acetone in order to achieve further exfoliation. The xGnP synthesized was characterized using SEM, HRTEM, X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The Cu and xGnP powder mixtures were consolidated under a load of 565 MPa followed by sintering at 850°C for 2 h in inert atmosphere. Cu-1, 2, 3 and 5 wt% xGnP composites were developed. Results of the wear test show that there is a significant improvement in the wear resistance of the composites up to addition of 2 wt% of xGnP. Hardness, tensile strength and strain at failure of the various Cu-xGnP composites also show improvement upto the addition of 2 wt% xGnP beyond which there is a decrease in these properties. The density of the composites decreases with the addition of higher wt% of xGnP although addition of higher wt% of xGnP leads to higher sinterability and densification of the composites, resulting in higher relative density values. The nature of fracture in the pure Cu as well as the various Cu-xGnP composites was found to be ductile. Nanoplatelets of graphite were found firmly embedded in the Cu matrix in case of Cu-xGnP composites containing low wt% of xGnP.

INDUCTION PLASMA REACTIVE DEPOSITION OF TUNGSTEN CARBIDE FROM TUNGSTEN METAL POWDER

Experimental results on the primary carburization reaction between the tungsten powder and methane in the induction plasma, and the secondary carburization of the deposit on substrate at high temperature are reported. Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to examine the microstructures of starting tungsten powder, carburized powder, and deposit. X-ray diffraction analysis, thermal gravimetric analysis and microhardness measurement were used to characterize the structures and properties of the powder and the deposit. It is found that the primary carburization reaction in the induction plasma starts from the surface of tungsten particles when the particles are melted. Tungsten particles are partially carburized inside the reactive plasma. Complete carburization is achieved through the secondary carburization reaction of the deposit on substrate at high temperature.

Densification Model for Porous Metallic Powder Materials

A new mechanical model for powder metallurgy compaction is presented. In this model, various amount of voids can be introduced into a continuous solid, therefore porosity can be conveniently controlled. The elastic-plastic finite element method was used to analyze the sintered powder material. The model was used to simulate compressing of a sintered cylinder. MSC.Marc of MSC. Software Corporation was applied here, and the sintered powder model was built in MSC.Mentat. The sintered cylindrical powder metallurgy part is treated as a piece of normal metal with pores in the model. The metal block is considered as cylinder with a radius of 6.0 mm and a total height of 10.0 mm. Young’s module was assumed to be 4 000 MPa. Poisson’s ratio was 0.269. The initial yield stress is 210 MPa. Friction coefficient used for the upper and lower contact surfaces is 0.3. Coulomb principle is adopted. Considering axisymmetricity, just half a section is analyzed. Totally there are 1 240 elements. Experiment was carried out by a computer controlled a universal tensile testing machine. During the experiment, the sample was prepared from highly compressible water atomized iron powder with 0.6wt% polymeric lubricant. Particle size is about 100～150 μm. The comparison was performed using a sintered cylindrical sample. The green compact was sintered at 1 140 ℃ for 2 hours. Initially, H0 is 10.20 mm, Φ0 is 12.01 mm and the initial relative density is 0.789. After pressing, H is 7.30 mm, Φ1 is 13.10 mm, Φ2 is 14.64 mm and relative density is 0.88. The load-displacement curves agree with the experimental results very well. Plastic deformation of metallic material is mostly caused by the slipping of crystal lattice. Although very small, a metal powder particle is composed of metallic crystal. Mechanical properties of a powder particle should be very close to their as solid metal counterpart.

Aging Behavior of Nano-SiC/2014Al Composite Fabricated by Powder Metallurgy and Hot Extrusion Techniques

The aging-hardening kinetics of powder metallurgy processed 2014Al alloy and its composite have been studied. The existence of n-SiC particulates leads to the increase of peak hardness. Interestingly, the aginghardening peak of the composite takes place at earlier time than that of the unreinforced alloy. Transmission electron microscopy（TEM） studies indicated that the major precipitation phases are Al_5Cu_2Mn_3 and θ′（Al_2Cu）. Besides, Ω phase appeared in both specimens at peak hardening condition, which has been rarely observed previously in aluminum metal matrix composites without Ag. Accelerated aging kinetics and increased peak hardness may be attributed to the higher dislocation density resulted from the mismatch of coefficients of thermal expansion between n-SiC and 2014Al matrix. The results are beneficial to fabricating high performance composites for the application in automobile field such as pistons, driveshaft tubes, brake rotors, bicycle frames, railroad brakes.

Tribological Characterization of Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites Processed by Powder Metallurgy

Aluminum （Al）-based aluminum oxide （Al2O3） and silicon carbide （SIC） particles hybrid metal matrix com- posites were processed by powder metallurgy technique, followed by sintering at 500 ℃ and then hot extrusion. The tribological properties of these composites with different weight fractions of Al2O3 and SiC were investigated; extrusion process significantly reduces the extent of porosity after cold compaction and sintering processes. Hybridization of the two reinforcements improved hardness and wear resistance of the composites. With an increase in SiC content, hardness was increased and consequently the wear resistance was enhanced also. Scanning electron microscopy observations show a better interfacial bond between matrix and reinforcements and a better distribution of the reinforcements.

Development of Flake Powder Metallurgy in Fabricating Metal Matrix Composites:A Review

Powder metallurgy （PM） is one of the most applied processes in the fabrication of metal matrix composites （MMCs）. Recently, a novel PM strategy called flake PM was developed to fabricate MMCs with nano-laminated or hierarchical architectures. The name ＂flake PM＂ was derived from the use of flake metal powders, which could benefit the uniform dispersion of reinforcements in the metal matrices and thus result in balanced strength and ductility. Flake PM has been proved to be successful in the dispersion of nano aluminum oxides, carbon nanotubes, graphene nano-sheets, and microsized B4C particles in aluminum or copper matrix. This paper reviews the technique and mechanism developments of flake PM in previous studies, and foresees the future develop of this new fabricating method.

Al–TiO_2–Gr powder metallurgy hybrid composites with cold upset forging

The cold upsetting studies were carried out for the aluminium metal matrix hybrid composites in the present study. Aluminium metal matrix hybrid composites were synthesised through powder metallurgy route from ball-milled powders to yield the following compositions：Al ＋ 2.5 wt% TiO2＋ 2 wt% Gr, Al ＋ 2.5 wt% TiO2＋ 4 wt% Gr, Al ＋ 5.0 wt% TiO2＋ 2 wt% Gr and Al ＋ 5.0 wt% TiO2＋ 4 wt% Gr. The compaction process was carried out using suitable punch and die in 40 k N hydraulic press, and sintering was done in an electric muffle furnace at the temperature of 590 °C for 3 h. The sintered preforms were subjected to incremental compressive loading of 10 k N until the cracks were found at the free surface. The true axial stress, true hoop stress, true hydrostatic stress and true effective stress were calculated for all the preforms, and all these stresses are correlated with the true axial strain. The stress ratio parameters（rz/reff, rh/reff, rz/rmand rh/rm） of the all preforms were correlated with true axial strain. The maximum true axial stress, true hoop stress, true effective stress and hydrostatic static stress are obtained for the composite containing5 wt% of TiO2 and 4 wt% of graphite and the minimum ones are obtained for composite containing 2.5 wt% of TiO2 and 2 wt% of graphite.

Effects of SiC Nanoparticle Content on the Microstructure and Tensile Mechanical Properties of Ultrafine Grained AA6063-SiC_(np) Nanocomposites Fabricated by Powder Metallurgy

Ultrafine grained AA6063-SiCnpnanocomposites with 1, 5 and 10 vol.% SiCnphave been fabricated by a novel powder metallurgy process. This process combines high energy ball milling of a mixture of 6063 alloy granules made from machining chips and Si C nanoparticles and thermomechanical powder consolidation by spark plasma sintering and hot extrusion. The microstructure and tensile mechanical properties of the samples were investigated in detail. Increasing the Si C nanoparticle content from 1 to 10 vol.%,the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength increased from 296 and 343 MPa to 545 and 603 MPa respectively, and the elongation to fracture decreased from 10.0%, to 2.3%. As expected, a higher Si C nanoparticle content generates a stronger inhibiting effect to grain growth during the thermomechanical powder consolidation process. Analysis of the contributions of various strengthening mechanisms shows that a higher Si C nanoparticle content leads to a higher contribution from nanoparticle strengthening, but grain boundary strengthening still makes the largest contribution to the strength of the nanocomposite.When the Si C nanoparticle content increased to 10 vol.%, the failure of the nanocomposite was initiated at weakly-bonded interparticle boundaries(IPBs), indicating that with a high flow stress during tensile deformation, the failure of the material is more sensitive to the presence of weakly-bonded IPBs.

Microstructure and Lattice Parameters of AIN Particle-Reinforced Magnesium Matrix Composites Fabricated by Powder Metallurgy

Magnesium matrix composites reinforced with AlN particles were fabricated by the powder metallurgy technique. The evolution of lattice constants and solid solubility levels of Al in α-Mg and the microstructure of Mg-Al/AlN composites were investigated in the present study. The results showed that the solid solubility of Al in α-Mg reached a relatively high level by the P/M process with a long time of milling. X-ray diffraction showed that the peaks of Mg phase clearly shifted to higher angles. The lattice constants and cell volume decreased significantly compared with those of standard Mg due to a significant amount of Al incorporated into α-Mg in the form of substitutional solid solution. The degree of lattice deformation decreased at a low sintering temperature and increased at higher sintering temperatures due to the presence of AlN. Microstructural characterization of the composites revealed a necklace distribution of AlN particles in the Mg matrix. Heat treatment led to precipitation of Mg17Al12 from the supersaturated α-Mg solid solution. The pre- cipitate exhibited granular and lath-shaped morphologies in Mg matrix and ftocculent precipitation around AlN particles.

Effects of Metal and Composite Metal Nanopowders on the Thermal Decomposition of Ammonium Perchlorate (AP) and the Ammonium Perchlorate/Hydroxyterminated Polybutadiene (AP/HTPB) Composite Solid Propellant

Effects of metal (Ni, Cu, Al) and composite metal (NiB, NiCu, NiCuB) nanopowders on the thermal decomposition of ammonium perchlorate (AP) and composite solid propellant ammonium perchlorate/hydroxyterminated polybutadiene (AP/HTPB) were studied by thermal analysis (DTA). The results show that metal and composite metal nanopowders all have good catalytic effects on the thermal decomposition of AP and AP/HTPB composite solid propellant. The effects of metal nanopowders on the thermal decomposition of AP are less than those of the composite metal nanopowders. The effects of metal and composite metal nanopowders on the thermal decomposition of AP are different from those on the thermal decomposition of the AP/HTPB composite solid propellant.

Impact mechanism of gas temperature in metal powder production via gas atomization

This paper aims at studying the influence mechanism of gas temperatures(300 K,400 K,500 K,and 600 K)on gas atomization by simulating the integral atomization process of the close-coupled nozzle in vacuum induction gas atomization(VIGA).The primary atomization is simulated by the volume of fluid(VOF)approach,and the second atomization is studied by the discrete phase model(DPM)combined with the instability breakage model.The results show that,at an increased gas temperature,the influences of gas-liquid contact angle and gas temperature in the recirculation zone on the primary atomization are virtually negligible.However,increasing the gas temperature will increase the gas-liquid relative velocity near the recirculation zone and decrease the melt film thickness,which are the main reasons for the reduced mass median diameter(MMD,d50)of primary atomized droplets.During the secondary atomization,increasing the gas temperature from 300 K to 600 K results in an increase in the droplet dispersion angle,which is beneficial to the formation of spherical metal powder.In addition,increasing the gas temperature,the positive effect of gas-liquid relative velocity increase on droplets refinement overweighs the negative influence of the GMR decrease,resulting in the reduced MMD and diameter distribution interval.From the analysis of the atomization mechanism,the increase in atomization efficiency caused by increasing the temperature of the atomizing gas,including primary atomization and secondary atomization,is mainly due to the increase in the gas drag force difference between the inner and outer sides of the annular liquid film.

Numerical investigation on flow process of liquid metals in melt delivery nozzle during gas atomization process for fine metal powder production

Based on volume of fluid(VoF)interface capturing method and shear-stress transport(SST)k-ω turbulence model,numerical simulation was performed to reveal the flow mechanism of metal melts in melt delivery nozzle(MDN)during gas atomization(GA)process.The experimental validation indicated that the numerical models could give a reasonable prediction on the melt flow process in the MDN.With the decrease of the MDN inner-diameter,the melt flow resistance increased for both molten aluminum and iron,especially achieving an order of 10^(2) kPa in the case of the MDN inner-diameter≤1 mm.Based on the conventional GA process,the positive pressure was imposed on the viscous aluminum alloy melt to overcome its flow resistance in the MDN,thus producing powders under different MDN inner-diameters.When the MDN inner-diameter was reduced from 4 to 2 mm,the yield of fine powder(<150μm)soared from 54.7%to 94.2%.The surface quality of powders has also been improved when using a smaller inner-diameter MDN.

IGNITING SHS BY LASER AND ITS APPLICATION TO SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING OF METALLIC POWDER MATERIAL

How to directly fabricate metallic functional parts with selective laser sintering (SLS) process is a potential technique that scientists are researching. Existent problems during directly fabricating metal part by use of SLS are analyzed. For the sake of solving the problems, a new idea of adding self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) material into metallic powder material to form new type of SLS metallic powder material is put forward. This powder material can release controllable amount of heat during its interaction with the laser beam energy to reduce the requirement to laser power during directly sintering metallic part, to prolong the time of metallic liquid phase existing, and to improve the intensity and accuracy of SLS part. For this reason, SHS material′s interaction with the CO2 laser beam energy is researched, which proves that CO2 laser beam energy may instantly ignite SHS reaction. On the basis of the above-mentioned researches, the effect of sintering the metal powder material mixing SHS material with CO2 laser is also researched, which shows: there is an optimal blending ratio of various material in the new metallic powder material. Under the optimal blending ratio and SLS process parameters, this new metallic powder material can indeed release amount of heat and SHS reaction may be controlled within the laser sintering. This research result makes it possible that the metallic part is directly sintered with small CO2 laser (less than 50W), which may greatly reduce the volume, cost and running expenditure of SLS machine, be propitious to application.

PREPARATION OF NANOSIZED METAL-OXIDE ULTRAFINE POWDERS BY ATOMIZING-COMBUSTION TECHNIQUE

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Aspects of the Powder in Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review

The most widely used metal additive manufacturing processes utilize powder that is spread or fed onto a building platform. Although there are reviews of the literature on some aspects of the powder, many aspects have been under-reviewed or unreviewed. The present work is a review of the literature on these aspects. Articles published in the open literature through the end of February 2022 were collected by consulting highly regarded relevant bibliographic databases, such as Google Scholar and Science Direct. The aspects reviewed were emerging methods of powder production, methods used to improve the quality of a powder after production by a well-established method, influence of variables of well-established powder production methods on powder properties, influence of powder production method on powder properties, and influence of powder reuse on properties of powders of a wide collection of alloys. One key finding was that with regard to powder reuse, the only consistent finding is that it leads to increase in the oxygen content of the powder. Another key finding was that the literature on the aspects of the literature reviewed herein contains many shortcomings and gaps, which suggest potential areas for future research, such as techniques for optimization of process variables for a given combination of metal powder and powder production method and development of methods for production of powders of new/emerging metallic materials.

Three-dimensional simulation of sintering crunodes of metal powders or fibers by level set method

The difference of sintering crunodes of metal powders and fibers is discussed. The mathematical model of the surface diffusion described by the difference in mean curvature is defined as a Hamilton-Jacobi-type equation, and the model is numerically solved by the level set method. The three-dimensional numerical simulations of two metal powders and fibers(the fiber angle is 0° or 90°) are implemented by this mathematical model, respectively. The numerical simulation results accord with the experimental ones. The sintering neck growth trends of metal powders and metal fibers are similar. The sintering neck radius of metal fibers is larger than that of metal powders. The difference of the neck radius is caused by the difference of geometric structure which makes an important influence on the curvature affecting the migration rate of atoms.