The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Soldier:A Systematic Review

The objective of this systematic review is to examine the effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder(PTSD)in military personnel.PubMed,Web of Science,The Cochrane Library,EBSCO and CNKI databases were searched from 1 January,2000 to November 2022 for Randomized Controlled Trials(RCTs)on psychotherapeutic interventions for military PTSD.The physical Therapy Evidence Database(PEDro)scale was used to evaluate the quality of the literature.Two researchers conducted literature screening,data extraction,and risk bias assessment in accordance with inclusion and exclusion criteria.Ultimately,49 RCTs were included,involving a total of 5073 veterans,retired and active military from four countries.The average score on the PEDro scale was 7.60.The primary psychotherapeutic modalities for military PTSD intervention include Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy,Exposure Therapy,Mindfulness interventions,psychotherapy based on new technological tools,and other emerging psychotherapeutic tools.The review highlights that Cognitive Processing Therapy(CPT)and Prolonged Exposure Therapy(PET)stand out as the primary psychotherapeutic modalities for treating PTSD in military personnel.In cases where CPT and PET yield limited benefits,Mindfulness interventions emerge as effective alternatives.Moreover,considering the diverse needs and high dropout rates in the military,population,the review suggests using web-based,computer,and virtual reality technology tools as supplements to first-line treatments(CPT/PET)to enhance overall intervention effectiveness.For the advancement of future psychotherapeutic initiatives,there is a pronounced emphasis on prioritizing proven first-line interventions,CPT and PET while also recognizing the potential of mindfulness-based interventions as credible alternatives.In tandem with this,the active integration of technological tools is advocated to amplify the therapeutic impact of conventional psychological treatment modalities.

Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy combined with habit reversal training on anxiety disorders in children with Tourette’s syndrome

BACKGROUND Cognitive-behavioral therapy(CBT)and habit reversal training(HRT)have shown application potential in addressing tic symptoms and comorbid psychiatric conditions.Despite their theoretical potential,empirical evidence on their combined efficacy remains limited.AIM To evaluate the efficacy of CBT combined with HRT on anxiety disorders in children with Tourette’s syndrome(TS).METHODS Clinical data of children with TS admitted to our hospital from January 2022 to June 2023 were collected,and the patients were grouped into the conventional therapy(control)group and the CBT combined with HRT group.Baseline charac-teristics,anxiety scores,tic severity scores,treatment adherence,and parental satisfaction were assessed.Statistical analysis was performed using t-tests,chi-square tests,and correlation analysis.RESULTS A total of 136 patients,including 65 patients in the control group and 71 patients in the CBT combined with HRT group,were included.The CBT combined with HRT group showed remarkable improvements compared with the control group.Post-intervention assessment revealed a decrease in anxiety scores from 63.52±1.81 to 40.53±1.64(t=2.022,P=0.045),and the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale total score decreased from 22.14±5.67 to 16.28±4.91(t=2.288,P=0.024).Treatment adherence was significantly higher in the CBT combined with HRT group(85.47±7.62%)compared with the control group(82.32±6.54%;t=2.596,P=0.010).Parental satisfaction scores were also higher in the CBT combined with HRT group(8.69±1.77)compared with the control group(7.87±1.92;t=2.592,P=0.011).CONCLUSION This study demonstrates that CBT combined with HRT significantly reduces anxiety symptoms and tic severity in children with TS,with higher treatment adherence and parental satisfaction.These findings support the potential application of this comprehensive therapeutic approach for TS treatment.

Application value research of swallowing treatment device combined with swallowing rehabilitation training in the treatment of swallowing disorders after stroke

BACKGROUND Stroke is a common disabling disease,whether it is ischemic stroke or hemorrhagic stroke,both can result in neuronal damage,leading to various manifestations of neurological dysfunction.AIM To explore of the application value of swallowing treatment device combined with swallowing rehabilitation training in the treatment of swallowing disorders after stroke.METHODS This study selected 86 patients with swallowing disorders after stroke admitted to our rehabilitation department from February 2022 to December 2023 as research subjects.They were divided into a control group(n=43)and an observation group(n=43)according to the treatment.The control group received swallowing rehabilitation training,while the observation group received swallowing treatment device in addition to the training.Both groups underwent continuous intervention for two courses of treatment.RESULTS The total effective rate in the observation group(93.02%)was higher than that in the control group(76.74%)(P=0.035).After intervention,the oral transit time,swallowing response time,pharyngeal transit time,and laryngeal closure time decreased in both groups compared to before intervention.In the observation group,the oral transit time,swallowing response time,and pharyngeal transit time were shorter than those in the control group after intervention.However,the laryngeal closure time after intervention in the observation group was compared with that in the control group(P=0.142).After intervention,average amplitude value and duration of the genioglossus muscle group during empty swallowing and swallowing 5 mL of water are reduced compared to before intervention in both groups.After intervention,the scores of the chin-tuck swallowing exercise and the Standardized Swallowing Assessment are both reduced compared to pre-intervention levels in both groups.However,the observation group scores lower than the control group after intervention.Additionally,the Functional Oral Intake Scale scores of both groups are increased after intervention compared to pre-intervention levels,with the observation group scoring higher than the control group after intervention(P<0.001).The cumulative incidence of complications in the observation group is 9.30%,which is lower than the 27.91%in the control group(P=0.027).CONCLUSION The combination of swallowing therapy equipment with swallowing rehabilitation training can improve the muscle movement level of the genioglossus muscle group,enhance swallowing function,and prevent the occurrence of swallowing-related complications after stroke.

Mesenchymal stem cells-based therapy as a potential treatment in neurodegenerative disorders: is the escape from senescence an answer?

Aging is the most prominent risk factor contributing to the development of neurodegenerative disorders. In the United States, over 35 million of elderly people suffer from age-related diseases. Aging impairs the self-repair ability of neuronal cells, which undergo progressive deterioration. Once initiated, this process hampers the already limited regenerative power of the central nervous system, making the search for new therapeutic strategies particularly difficult in elderly affected patients. So far, mesenchymal stem cells have proven to be a viable option to ameliorate certain aspects of neurodegeneration, as they possess high proliferative rate and differentiate in vitro into multiple lineages. However, accumulating data have demonstrated that during longterm culture, mesenchymal stem cells undergo spontaneous transformation. Transformed mesenchymal stem cells show typical features of senescence, including the progressive shortening of telomers, which results in cell loss and, as a consequence, hampered regenerative potential. These evidences, in line with those observed in mesenchymal stem cells isolated from old donors, suggest that senescence may represent a limit to mesenchymal stem cells exploitation in therapy, prompting scholars to either find alternative sources of pluripotent cells or to arrest the age-re- lated transformation. In the present review, we summarize findings from recent literature, and critically discuss some of the major hurdles encountered in the search of appropriate sources of mesenchymal stem cells, as well as benefits arising from their use in neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, we provide some insights that may aid in the development of strategies to arrest or, at least, delay the aging of mesenchymal stem cells to improve their therapeutic potential.

Efficacy of Yiqiyangxin Chinese medicine compound combined with cognitive therapy in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorders

Objective:To observe the clinical efficacy of Yiqiyangxin Chinese medicine compound combined with cognitive therapy on generalized anxiety disorders.Methods:A total of 202 generalized anxiety disorders patients were randomly allocated to a control condition(Paroxetine combined with cognitive therapy) or a treatment condition(Yiqiyangxin Chinese medicine compound combined with cognitive therapy).Subsequently,scores of Hamilton Anxiety Scale(HAMA), Zung Self-rating Anxiety Scale(SAS) and blood routine,urine routine,liver function,renal function,electrocardiogram were detected before treatment,3 months,6 months after treatment and 6 months after medicine withdrawal,respectively.Results:HAMA and SAS scores were significantly reduced in two groups(P【0.001) after treatment,but the differences in HAMA and SAS scores,apparent effect and effectiveness were not significant(P】0.05).HAMA and SAS scores were significantly increased in two groups(P【0.05) after medicine withdrawal,and there were significant differences in HAMA and SAS scores,recurrent disease and adverse reaction(P【0.001). The incidence of recurrent disease and adverse reaction in treatment group was low.Both two groups showed no apparent abnormality in blood routine,urine routine,liver and renal function, and electrocardiogram.Conclusions:Yiqiyangxin Chinese medicine compound combined with cognitive therapy can significantly reduce the recurrence after medicine withdrawal and is effective on generalized anxiety disorders.Furthermore,the incidence of adverse reactions is low. The treatment program is worthy clinic application in the further.

Status,challenges,and future prospects of stem cell therapy in pelvic floor disorders

Pelvic floor disorders(PFDs)represent a group of common and frequentlyoccurring diseases that seriously affect the life quality of women,generally including stress urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse.Surgery has been used as a treatment for PFD,but almost 30%of patients require subsequent surgery due to a high incidence of postoperative complications and high recurrence rates.Therefore,investigations of new therapeutic strategies are urgently needed.Stem cells possess strong multi-differentiation,self-renewal,immunomodulation,and angiogenesis abilities and they are able to differentiate into various cell types of pelvic floor tissues and thus provide a potential therapeutic approach for PFD.Recently,various studies using different autologous stem cells have achieved promising results by improving the pelvic ligament and muscle regeneration and conferring the tissue elasticity and strength to the damaged tissue in PFD,as well as reduced inflammatory reactions,collagen deposition,and foreign body reaction.However,with relatively high rates of complications such as bladder stone formation and wound infections,further studies are necessary to investigate the role of stem cells as maintainers of tissue homeostasis and modulators in early interventions including therapies using new stem cell sources,exosomes,and tissueengineering combined with stem cell-based implants,among others.This review describes the types of stem cells and the possible interaction mechanisms in PFD treatment,with the hope of providing more promising stem cell treatment strategies for PFD in the future.

Neural stem cell replacement: a possible therapy for neurodevelopmental disorders?

Neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by an abnormal development of the central nervous system, leading to a myriad of symptoms and diseases, including intellectual disability, attention deficits, impairments in learning and memory, speech disorders and repetitive behavior （Telias and Ben-Yosef, 2014）. Common major neurodevelopmental disorders include autism and autism spectrum disorders （ASDs）, fragile X syndrome （FXS）, Down syndrome （DS）, and Rett syndrome （RTT）. They can be collectively described as disorders in which the plasticity of the brain has been severely impaired. The concept of plasticity refers to the brain＇s ability to adapt to and process new information and react accordingly, and it can be classified into three categories： a） molecular plasticity, whenever specific receptors, ion channels, enzymes,

Psychotic symptoms in bipolar disorder and their impact on the illness:A systematic review

BACKGROUND Lifetime psychotic symptoms are present in over half of the patients with bipolar disorder(BD)and can have an adverse effect on its course,outcome,and treatment.However,despite a considerable amount of research,the impact of psychotic symptoms on BD remains unclear,and there are very few systematic reviews on the subject.AIM To examine the extent of psychotic symptoms in BD and their impact on several aspects of the illness.METHODS The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines were followed.An electronic literature search of six English-language databases and a manual search was undertaken to identify published articles on psychotic symptoms in BD from January 1940 to December 2021.Combinations of the relevant Medical Subject Headings terms were used to search for these studies.Articles were selected after a screening phase,followed by a review of the full texts of the articles.Assessment of the methodological quality of the studies and the risk of bias was conducted using standard tools.RESULTS This systematic review included 339 studies of patients with BD.Lifetime psychosis was found in more than a half to two-thirds of the patients,while current psychosis was found in a little less than half of them.Delusions were more common than hallucinations in all phases of BD.About a third of the patients reported first-rank symptoms or mood-incongruent psychotic symptoms,particularly during manic episodes.Psychotic symptoms were more frequent in bipolar type I compared to bipolar type II disorder and in mania or mixed episodes compared to bipolar depression.Although psychotic symptoms were not more severe in BD,the severity of the illness in psychotic BD was consistently greater.Psychosis was usually associated with poor insight and a higher frequency of agitation,anxiety,and hostility but not with psychiatric comorbidity.Psychosis was consistently linked with increased rates and the duration of hospitalizations,switching among patients with depression,and poorer outcomes with mood-incongruent symptoms.In contrast,psychosis was less likely to be accompanied by a rapid-cycling course,longer illness duration,and heightened suicidal risk.There was no significant impact of psychosis on the other parameters of course and outcome.CONCLUSION Though psychotic symptoms are very common in BD,they are not always associated with an adverse impact on BD and its course and outcome.

Significance of music therapy in treating depression and anxiety disorders among people with cancer

Globally,cancer cases and mortality have recently escalated and have attracted global concern.The clinical diagnosis and manifestation of cancer can result in significant mental health issues like depression and anxiety disorders.The tendency of people with cancer to suffer from psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression is usually high.A significant number of deaths related to cancer may likely not be from the killer disease but from psychological disorders associated with the illness.The utilization of music as a remedial approach to healing mental disorders cannot be overstated.Thus,identifying the impacts of music therapy in dealing with depression and anxiety disorders among people with cancer is relevant,as the majority of methods used in treating cancer have some side effects which may trigger psychological disorders in cancer patients.Ultimately,this study explored the significance of music therapy in treating depression and anxiety disorders among people with cancer.To achieve the aim of this study,the authors employed a narrative literature review to investigate the significance of music therapy in addressing depression and anxiety disorders among people with cancer.The type of literature review employed in this study is to provide an understanding of the selected research papers.The review found that music therapy significantly reduces depression and anxiety disorders among breast cancer,lung cancer,prostate cancer,and colorectal cancer patients.It is needful for healthcare providers to incorporate music therapy interventions while treating people with cancer.This will help reduce cancer deaths resulting from psychological disorders rather than the killer disease,cancer.However,the standardized procedures and evaluation criteria for applying music-based intervention strategies in oncology medicine still need to be further established and improved.

Correlation of human immunodeficiency virus and antiretroviral therapy with cardiac disorders

The occurrence of cardiovascular illness in the human immunodeficiency virus(HIV)community is increasing,with a particular focus on coronary heart disease.Patients infected with HIV have a higher risk of myocardial infarction compared to the general population in modern countries due to the development of effective antiretroviral medications and increased life expectancy.Those not receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy(ART)may experience common cardiac consequences,including myocarditis,dilated cardiomyopathy,endocarditis,pulmonary hypertension,pericardial effusion,and cardiotoxicity associated with non-antiretroviral drugs.After the use of highly active ART,continuing immune activation and systemic inflammation seem to play a central role in this process.Recent studies suggest that protease inhibitors might negatively impact the progression of HIV-related heart failure(HF),which complicates the determination of the best therapy strategy for HIVassociated cardiomyopathy.The objective of this review is to examine the pathophysiology and correlation of various antiretroviral drugs leading to HIV-associated HF.Additionally,we explore the causes of HIV-associated atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease,including the high frequency of classic cardiovascular risk factors in HIVinfected patients,as well as HIV-related factors like the use of ART and chronic inflammation despite successful treatment of HIV infection.Numerous studies have revealed that individuals living with HIV/acquired immune deficiency syndrome frequently experience HF.In conclusion,despite advancements in HIV care,HIV-infected individuals continue to face an increased risk of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy and atherosclerosis.Further research is necessary to comprehend the underlying causes and develop effective treatments for cardiovascular disease in this population.We also discuss the currently available therapeutic options and ongoing research to mitigate the risk of cardiovascular disease and inflammation in HIV-infected individuals.

Integrative therapy for personality disorders: Experiences in developing integrative approaches for treatment-refractory personality-disordered clients

Personality Disordered (herein referred to as PD) clients are challenging to statutory mental healthcare programmes. They can be difficult to diagnose: their disorders can be obscured by second-order problems such as anxiety and depression, caused by PD cognitive processes. Treatment-as-usual (the predominant model of psychiatric intervention) for PD clients in crisis tends to focus on these second-order presentations, but provide no means of identifying underlying PD. The purpose of this paper is to describe how heuristic methods of diagnosis can be used to reframe the client’s distress in the context of personality disorders (according to DSM-IV criteria), and how subsequent application of integrative therapies can break their cycle of recidivism. Method: Two case studies of treatment-refractory individuals with cyclical patterns of crisis-point service engagement for self-harm or psychotic depression where heuristic/ integrative therapies were used. Results: The use of integrative therapies in the case studies presented resulted in a marked change in recidivism and quality of life for each client, as measured by a significant reduction in presentation of symptoms and hypervigilance. Discussion: By understanding the maladaptive cognitive-behavioural processes of PD clients, they can be modified to reduce the client’s self-defeating behavioural patterns, breaking the cycle of recidivism. However, a new diagnostic strategy must first be formulated that looks at the clients past use of mental health services to detect underlying PD.

Factors causing a relapse of major depressive disorders following successful electroconvulsive therapy:A retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND Electroconvulsive therapy(ECT)is used to treat major depressive disorder(MDD).Relapse is often observed even after successful ECT,followed by adequate pharmaceutical treatment for MDD.AIM To investigate the diagnostic factors and treatment strategies associated with depression relapse.METHODS We analyzed the relationships between relapse,the diagnostic change from MDD to bipolar disorder(BP),and treatment after the initial ECT.We performed a 3-year retrospective study of the prognoses of 85 patients of the Shiga University of Medical Science Hospital.The relative risk of relapse of depressive symptoms was calculated based on the diagnostic change from MDD to BP.A receiver operating characteristic(ROC)curve was generated to evaluate the predictive accuracy of diagnostic changes from MDD to BP based on the duration between the first course of ECT and the relapse of depressive symptoms.RESULTS Eighty-five patients initially diagnosed with MDD and successfully treated with ECT were enrolled in the study.Compared with the MDD participants,more BP patients experienced relapses and required continuation and/or maintenance ECT to maintain remission(65.6%vs 15.1%,P<0.001;relative risk=4.35,95%CI:2.19-8.63,P<0.001).Twenty-nine patients experienced relapses during the three-year follow-up.In 21(72.4%,21/29)patients with relapse,the diagnosis was changed from MDD to BP.The duration from the first course of ECT to relapse was shorter for the BP patients than for the MDD patients(9.63±10.4 mo vs 3.38±3.77 mo,P=0.022);for most patients,the interval was less than one month.The relative risk of depressive symptoms based on diagnostic changes was 4.35(95%confidence interval:2.19–8.63,P<0.001),and the area under the ROC curve for detecting diagnostic changes based on relapse duration was 0.756(95%CI:0.562-0.895,P=0.007).CONCLUSION It may be beneficial to suspect BP and change the treatment strategy from MDD to BP for patients experiencing an early relapse.

Borderline Personality Disorders by Dialectical Therapy

This study aimed to discover the possibility of reducing the symptoms of borderline personality disorders (BPD) through the dialectical treatment of a sample group of individuals with BPD in Kuwait. To achieve this objective, a quasi-experimental approach was applied by dividing the study sample into two groups;the control group consisted of 75 individuals and the experimental group consisted of 75 individuals. In addition, a borderline personality disorder scale and program were developed based on American psychologist Marsha Linehan’s rules of dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT). Among the results, the study found statistically significant differences between members of the two groups due to the use of the counseling program based on dialectical treatment. This indicates a positive effect of using the counseling program to reduce the level of BPD among the members of the study sample, in favor of the experimental group.

Psychological and Physiological Health Benefits of a Structured Forest Therapy Program for Children and Adolescents with Mental Health Disorders

Mental health conditions in children and adolescents can be improved by slow mindful nature connection known as forest therapyor bathing.Forest therapy has recently received growing attention as an enabler of relaxation and preventive health care withdemonstrated clinical efficacy.However,it is not well-known that forest therapy also decreases mental health issues amongindividuals with mental health disorders.This study explored the psychological and physiological health benefits of structuredforest therapy programs for children and adolescents with mental health disorders.A one-group pre-test-posttest design wasemployed for our study participants.Twelve participants(aged 9–14 years)engaged in two one-hour guided standard sequenceforest therapy experiences.A Mindful Attention Awareness Scale(MAAS),Connectedness to Nature Scale(CNS),Profile ofMood States(POMS),place meanings(e.g.,functional,emotional,and cognitive attachment to the forest)questionnaire,andphysiological health assessment were administered to the participants.Our results showed that negative mood states weresignificantly reduced and that a positive mood state was significantly improved after the structured forest therapy programs.Also,mindfulness,nature connection,place meanings,and physiological health were significantly boosted after theinterventions.The results demonstrate substantial psychological and physiological health and well-being outcomes ofstructured forest therapy for similar individuals.

The biological clock: future of neurological disorders therapy

Dear editors, The seminal, discoveries by Jeffrey Connor Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael Warren Young have earned the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine 2017 for revealing a crucial physiological mechanism explaining biological clock, with important implications for human health and diseases. The work explains the interplay between the biological clock, the transcriptional feedback loop, and neuroscience, where they identified genes and proteins that work together both in humans and other animals. This article describes the link between biological clock disruption and consequent neurodegeneration and also highlights the significance of biological clock modulators for possible clinical interventions in neurological disorders.

Progress in Application of CBT Therapy in Patients with Post-stroke Mental Disorders

The application effects of CBT therapy in patients with post-stroke mental disorders were summarized to better understand the application effects of CBT therapy in patients with post-stroke mental disorders,so as to provide reference suggestions for better providing psychological treatment to patients with post-stroke mental disorders.

Animal Assisted Therapy: It’s Implications among Disorders, for Thera­peutic Practice, and in Health and Well-being

Till the time one has not loved an animal,a part of one’s soul remains unborn.Animal Assisted Therapy can be used in amalgamation with other forms of therapy.The animal becomes an assimilation of the therapeutic plan with AAT.Many psychological disorders have been shown to react well to Animal-Assisted Therapy(AAT).The article is a concise literature review on Animal Assisted Therapy of database available from the studies that were integrated and provided a general understanding of the perceived benefits of Animal Assisted Therapy and includes topics that are categorised as an Introduction to Animal Assisted Therapy:how it can help people with disorders,it’s utilisation in therapeutic practice and its relation to our health and well-being.Papers were considered eligible if they satisfied the following pre-determined criteria:(1)Talked about Animal Assisted Therapy in context to well-being of an individual,(2)Talked about implications of Animal Assisted Therapy in context to disorders and(3)Showed benefits of Animal Assisted Therapy in counselling.This paper further provides an overall review of Animal Assisted Therapy.Relevant data was summarized and collated to make a narrative account of the findings that animal in the therapy would not make it more difficult,but rather make it easier,the therapist be aware of any animal-related allergies when employing animals as adjuncts and animals can help have a better emotional and physical healing experience by the patient.

Meta analysis on the effectiveness of auricular therapy combined with modern medicine in the treatment of depression/anxiety disorders in maintenance hemodialysis patients

Objective:We used meta-analysis to explore the clinical efficacy of auricular point therapy combined with modern medicine in improving depression/anxiety in maintenance hemodialysis patients.Methods:We searched CNKI,Wanfang,Weipu,CBM,The Cochrane Library,PubMed,Web of Science,Embase through computer to build a randomized controlled trials of auricular therapy combined with modern medicine in the treatment of depression/anxiety disorders in China and abroad since 2022.Two evaluators independently screened the studies,extracted and cross-checked the key data in the studies independently after determining the included studies,and then evaluated the quality of the studies respectively.Finally,we used RevMan 5.3 platform for statistical processing of data.Results:This meta-analysis included a total of 12 clinical randomized controlled trials,including a total of 899 patients.The results showed that the observation group was more effective in reducing the scores of Hamilton Anxiety Scale,self rating Anxiety Scale,self rating Depression Scale,Pittsburgh sleep quality index score of maintenance hemodialysis patients.In addition,there was no statistical difference between the observation group and the control group in improving the total clinical effective rate.Conclusion:The observation group has a more obvious effect on the improvement of anxiety or depression in maintenance hemodialysis patients.However,due to the limitation of the quantity and quality of the included studies,the real efficacy of auricular therapy combined with modern medicine in improving anxiety or depression disorder after maintenance hemodialysis still needs to be supported by more carefully designed and standardized multi-center,large-sample clinical studies.

Rational use of mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders

Autism and autism spectrum disorders(ASD) refer to a range of conditions characterized by impaired social and communication skills and repetitive behaviors caused by different combinations of genetic and environmental influences. Although the pathophysiology underlying ASD is still unclear, recent evidence suggests that immune dysregulation and neuroinflammation play a role in the etiology of ASD. In particular, there is direct evidence supporting a role for maternal immune activation during prenatal life in neurodevelopmental conditions. Currently, the available options of behavioral therapies and pharmacological and supportive nutritional treatments in ASD are only symptomatic. Given the disturbing rise in the incidence of ASD, and the fact that there is no effective pharmacological therapy for ASD, there is an urgent need for new therapeutic options. Mesenchymal stem cells(MSCs) possess immunomodulatory properties that make them relevant to several diseases associated with inflammation and tissue damage. The paracrine regenerative mechanisms of MSCs are also suggested to be therapeutically beneficial for ASD.Thus the underlying pathology in ASD, including immune system dysregulation and inflammation, represent potential targets for MSC therapy. This review willfocus on immune dysfunction in the pathogenesis of ASD and will further discuss the therapeutic potential for MSCs in mediating ASD-related immunological disorders.