Unraveling the efficiency losses and improving methods in quantum dot-based infrared up-conversion photodetectors

Quantum dot-based up-conversion photodetector,in which an infrared photodiode(PD)and a quantum dot light-emitting diode(QLED)are back-to-back connected,is a promising candidate for low-cost infrared imaging.However,the huge efficiency losses caused by integrating the PD and QLED together hasn’t been studied sufficiently.This work revealed at least three origins for the efficiency losses.First,the PD unit and QLED unit usually didn’t work under optimal conditions at the same time.Second,the potential barriers and traps at the interconnection between PD and QLED units induced unfavorable carrier recombination.Third,much emitted visible light was lost due to the strong visible absorption in the PD unit.Based on the understandings on the loss mechanisms,the infrared up-conversion photodetectors were optimized and achieved a breakthrough photon-to-photon conversion efficiency of 6.9%.This study provided valuable guidance on how to optimize the way of integration for up-conversion photodetectors.

Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors:the Basic Design and New Research Directions

The basic design principles and parameters of GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP) are reviewed.Furthermore new research directions,devices and applications suited for QWIPs are discussed.These include monolithic integration of QWIPs with GaAs based electronic and optoelectronic devices,high frequency and high speed QWIPs and applications,multicolor and multispectral detectors,and p-type QWIPs.

Progress in quantum well and quantum cascade infrared photodetectors in SITP

This paper presents a review of recent advances in quantum well and quantum cascade infrared photodetectors developed in Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences(SITP/CAS). Firstly, the temperature-and bias-dependent photocurrent spectra of very long wavelength(VLW) GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors(QWIPs) are studied using spectroscopic measurements and corresponding theoretical calculations in detail. We confirm that the first excited state, which belongs to the quasi-bound state, can be converted into a quasi-continuum state induced by bias and temperature. Aided by band structure calculations, we propose a model of the double excited states that determine the working mechanism in VLW QWIPs. Secondly, we present an overview of a VLW QWIP focal plane array(FPA)with 320×256 pixels based on the bound to quasi-bound(BTQB) design. The technology of the manufacturing FPA based on the QWIP structures has been demonstrated. At the operating temperature of 45 K, the detectivity of QWIP FPA is larger than 1.4×10^(10) cm·Hz^(1/2)/W with a cutoff wavelength larger than 16 μm. Finally, to meet the needs of space applications, we proposed a new long wavelength quantum cascade detector with a broadband detection ranging from 7.6 μm to 10.4 μm. With a pair of identical coupled quantum wells separated by a thin barrier, acting as absorption regions, the relative linewidth(?E/E) of response can be dramatically broadened to 30.7%. It is shown that the spectral shape and linewidth can be tuned by the thickness of the thin barrier, while it is insensitive to the working temperature. The device can work above liquid nitrogen temperature with a peak responsivity of 63 mA/W and Johnson noise limited detectivity of 5.1×10~9 cm·Hz^(1/2)/W.

Recent progress of infrared photodetectors based on lead chalcogenide colloidal quantum dots

Commercial photodetectors based on silicon are extensively applied in numerous fields. Except for their high performance, their maximum absorption wavelength is not over than 1100 nm and incident light with longer wavelengths cannot be detected; in addition, their cost is high and their manufacturing process is complex. Therefore, it is meaningful and significant to extend absorption wavelength, to decrease cost, and to simplify the manufacturing process while maintaining high performance for photodetectors. Due to the properties of size-dependent bandgap tunability, low cost, facile processing,and substrate compatibility, solution–processed colloidal quantum dots(CQDs) have recently gained significant attention and become one of the most competitive and promising candidates for optoelectronic devices. Among these CQDs, lead chalcogenide CQDs are getting very prominent and are widely investigated. In this paper, the recent progress of infrared(IR) photodetectors based on lead sulfide(PbS), lead selenide(PbSe), and ternary PbS_x Se_(1-x) CQDs, and their underlying concepts, breakthroughs, and remaining challenges are reviewed, thus providing guidance for designing high-performance quantum-dot IR photodetectors.

9μm Cutoff 128×128 AlGaAs/GaAs Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector Focal Plane Arrays

We design and fabricate a 128 × 128 AlGaAs/GaAs quantum well infrared photodetector focal plane array （FPA）. The device is achieved by metal organic chemical vapor deposition and GaAs integrated circuit processing technology. A test structure of the photodetector with a mesa size of 300μm × 300μm is also made in order to obtain the device parameters. The measured dark current density at 77K is 1.5 × 10^-3A/cm^2 with a bias voltage of 2V. The peak of the responsivity spectrum is at 8.4μm,with a cutoff wavelength of 9μm. The blackbody detectivity is shown to be 3.95 × 10^8 （cm · Hz^1/2）/W. The final FPA is flip-chip bonded on a CMOS read-out integrated circuit. The infrared thermal images of some targets at room temperature background are successfully demonstrated at 80K operating temperature with a ratio of dead pixels of less than 1%.

Modelling of the Quantum Transport in Strained Si/SiGe/Si Superlattices Based P-i-n Infrared Photodetectors for 1.3 - 1.55 μm Optical Communication

In this paper, a p-i-n heterojunction based on strain-compensated Si/Si1-xGex/Si multiple quantum wells on relaxed Si1-yGey is proposed for photodetection applications. The Si1-yGey/Si/Si1-xGex/Si/Si1-yGey stack consists in a W-like potential profile strain-compensated in the two low absorption windows of silica fibers infrared (IR) photodetectors. These computations have been used for the study of p-i-n infrared photodetectors operating at room temperature (RT) in the range 1.3 - 1.55 μm. The electron transport in the Si/Si1-xGex/Si multi-quantum wells-based p-i-n structure was analyzed and numerically simulated taking into account tunneling process and thermally activated transfer through the barriers mainly. These processes were modeled with a system of Schrodinger and kinetic equations self-consistently resolved with the Poisson equation. Temperature dependence of zero-bias resistance area product (RoA) and bias-dependent dynamic resistance of the diode have been analyzed in details to investigate the contribution of dark current mechanisms which reduce the electrical performances of the diode.

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL AND SIMULATION OF GaAs/AlGaAs QUANTUM WELL INFRARED PHOTODETECTOR-Ⅱ ELECTRICAL ASPECTS

A complete quantum mechanical model for GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors(QWIPs) was presented. The photocurrent was investigated by the optical transition(absorption coefficient)between the ground state and the excited states due to the nonzero component of the radiation field along the sample growth direction. By studying the inter diffusion of the Al atoms across the GaAs/AlGaAs heterointer faces, the mobility of the drift diffusion carriers in the excited states was calculated. As a result, the measurement results of the dark current and the photocurrent spectra are explained theoretically.

MODIFICATION OF ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF GaAs/AlGaAs QUANTUM WELL INFRARED PHOTODETECTOR BY POSTGROWTH ADJUSTMENT

Quantum well intermixing techniques modify the geometric shape of quantum wells to allow postgrowth adjustments.The tuning effect on the optical response property of a GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetector(QWIP) induced by the interdifussion of Al atoms was studied theoretically.By assuming an improvement of the heterointerface quality and an enhanced Al interdiffusion caused by postgrowth intermixings,the photoluminescence spectrum shows a blue-shifted,narrower and enhanced photoluminescence peak.The infrared optical absorption spectrum also shows the expected redshift of the response wavelength.However,the variation in the absorption peak intensity depends on the boundary conditions of the photo generated carriers.For high-quality QWIP samples,the mean free path of photocarriers is long so that the photocarriers are largely coherent when they transport across quantum wells.In this case,the enhanced Al interdiffusion can significantly degrade the infrared absorption property of the QWIP.Special effects are therefore needed to maintain and/or improve the optical properties of the QWIP device during postgrowth treatments.

Injector Quantum Dot Molecule Infrared Photodetector:A Concept for Efficient Carrier Injection

Quantum dot infrared photodetectors are expected to be a competitive technology at high oper ation temperatures in the long and very long wavelength infrared spectral range.Despite the fact that they already achieved notable success,the performance suffers from the thermionic emission of electrons from the quantum dots at elevated temperatures resulting in a decreasing responsivity.In order to provide an efficient carrier injection at high temperatures,quantum dot infrared photodetectors can be separated into two parts:an injection part and a detection part,so that each part can be separately optimized.In order to integrate such functionality into a device,a new class of quantum dot infrared photodetectors using quantum dot molecules will be introduced.In addition to a general discussion simulation results suggest a possibility to realize such a device.

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL AND SIMULATION OF GaAs/AlGaAs QUANTUM WELL INFRARED PHOTO-DETECTOR-ⅠOPTICAL ASPECTS

A complete quantum mechanical model for GaAs?AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors(QWIPs) is presented here. The model consisted of four parts: (1) Starting with the description of the electromagnetic field of the infrared radiation in the QWIP, effective component of the vector potential <| A z |> along the QWIP growth direction ( z axis) due to the optical diffraction grating was calculated. (2) From the wave transmissions and the occupations of the electronic states, it was discussed that the dark current in the QWIP is determined by the drift diffusion current of carriers thermally excited from the ground sublevel in the quantum well to extended states above the barrier. (3) The photocurrent was investigated by the optical transition (absorption coefficient between the ground state to excited states due to the nonzero <| A z |> ). (4) By studying the inter diffusion of the Al atoms across the GaAs?AlGaAs heterointerfaces,the mobility of the drift diffusion carriers in the excited states was calculated, so the measurement results of the dark current and photocurrent spectra can be explained theoretically. With the complete quantum mechanical descriptions of (1 4), QWIP device design and optimization are possible.

Advantages of QWIP technology in infrared thermal cameras

Standard GaAs/AlGaAs quantum well infrared photodetectors(QWIP)have been seriously considered as atechnological choice for the 3^(rd) generation of thermal imagers in the long wave infrared band(LWIR)for some time.Alternative technology like MCT(HgCdTe)was the technology choice of the 2^(nd) generation because of its high quantum efficiency.In the paper,measurements on the QWIP technology will be presented and a comparison with alternative technology will be done.

Strain effect on intersubband transitions in rolled-up quantum well infrared photodetectors

Pre-strained nanomembranes with four embedded quantum wells（QWs） are rolled up into threedimensional（3D） tubular QW infrared photodetectors（QWIPs）,which are based on the QW intersubband transition（ISBT）.A redshift of ～0.42 meV in photocurrent response spectra is observed and attributed to two strain contributions due to the rolling of the pre-strained nanomembranes.One is the overall strain that mainly leads to a redshift of ～0.5 meV,and the other is the strain gradient which results in a very tiny variation.The blue shift of the photocurrent response spectra with the external bias are also observed as quantum-confined Stark effect（QCSE）in the ISBT.

非均匀GaAs/AlGaAs量子阱红外探测器材料表征和器件性能研究

本文利用分子束外延(MBE)技术成功生长了GaAs/AlGaAs非均匀量子阱红外探测器材料,并对相关微结构作了细致表征。分析比较了非均匀量子阱结构和常规量子阱红外探测器性能差异,并对比研究了不同势阱宽度下非均匀量子阱红外探测器的性能变化。通过高分辨透射电子显微镜(HRTEM)结合能谱仪(EDS)对非均匀量子阱红外探测器材料微结构进行了分析,并利用二次离子质谱仪(SIMS)对非均匀势阱掺杂进行了表征。结果表明,该量子阱外延材料晶体质量很好,量子阱结构和掺杂浓度也与设计值符合较好。对于非均匀量子阱红外探测器,通过改变每个阱的掺杂浓度和势垒宽度,可以改变量子阱电场分布,而与传统的均匀量子阱红外探测器相比,其暗电流显著下降(约一个数量级)。在不同阱宽下,非均匀量子阱的跃迁模式发生改变,束缚态到准束缚态跃迁模式下(B-QB)的器件具有较高的黑体响应率以及较低的暗电流。

钙钛矿基宽谱带光电探测器

钙钛矿材料凭借可调带隙、高光吸收系数和低激子结合能等优势,在半导体光伏和光电探测领域大放异彩。普适性的铅基钙钛矿吸收范围通常集中在UV到Vis区域,而窄带隙的纯锡基或者锡铅混合钙钛矿其吸收光谱仍局限于~1060 nm以内的近红外范围,受限于未来复杂场景的应用及探测成像。通过将钙钛矿与窄带隙半导体结合构建“钙钛矿/半导体”复合异质结可以进一步扩展光谱范围并提高吸收效率。本综述总结了钙钛矿基宽谱带光电探测器在探测性能优化、单体材料优异性能、复合材料优选工程等方面的进展,并探讨了宽谱探测器在光谱响应、像素集成、柔性器件开发和稳定性等方面的进展和应用前景。本综述将有助于推动钙钛矿基宽谱带光电探测研究及其未来成像应用。

GaAs/Al_(0.3)Ga_(0.7)As QWIP暗电流特性HRTEM研究

采用金属有机物化学气相沉积法（MOCVD）生长GaAs/Al0.3Ga0.7As量子阱材料，制备300μm×300μm台面，内电极压焊点面积为20μm×20μm，外电极压焊点面积为80μm×80μm的单元样品两种。用变温液氮制冷系统对样品进行77~300 K暗电流特性测试。结果显示，器件暗电流曲线呈现出正负偏压的不对称性。利用高分辨透射扫描电镜（HRTEM）获得样品纳米尺度横断面高分辨像，分析结果表明：样品横断面处存在不同程度的位错及不均匀性。说明样品内部穿透位错造成相位分离是引起量子阱光电性能变差的根本原因，不同生长次序中AlGaAs与GaAs界面的不对称性与掺杂元素的扩散现象加剧了暗电流曲线的不对称性。

III-Nitride-Based Quantum Dots and Their Optoelectronic Applications

During the last two decades, III-nitride-based quantum dots(QDs) have attracted great attentions for optoelectronic applications due to their unique electronic properties. In this paper, we first present an overview on the techniques of fabrication for III-nitride-based QDs. Then various optoelectronic devices such as QD lasers, QD light-emitting diodes(LEDs), QD infrared photodetectors(QDIPs) and QD intermediate band(QDIB) solar cells(SCs) are discussed. Finally, we focus on the future research directions and how the challenges can be overcome.

中波红外量子点材料与探测器研究进展

量子点(Quantum dots,QDs)由于本身所具有的量子限域效应、尺寸效应和表面效应等各种特性,被广泛应用于光电探测、生物医学、新能源等方面。而中波红外(Mid-wave infrared,MWIR)量子点作为近年来红外领域的研究热点,通过调整控制其尺寸的大小,能够扩展其红外吸收波长。因此,成功制备中波红外量子点材料和器件对红外成像、红外制导和搜索跟踪等方面有着重要意义。本文首先介绍了HgSe、HgTe、PbSe、Ag_(2)Se和HgCdTe五种中波红外量子点材料制备合成技术,分析了量子点的尺寸形貌、晶格条纹以及红外吸收光谱等特性,然后对国内外中波红外量子点探测器进行了归纳总结,概述了探测器的器件结构、制备方法,并对器件的响应率、探测率以及响应时间等光电性能参数进行了对比分析。最后,对中波红外量子点的发展进行了展望。

带间级联红外探测器的光电流输运与量子效率研究

带间级联红外探测器可以利用多级吸收区级联的方式实现高的工作温度,但不同的吸收区厚度设计方式会使得器件在不同级数吸收区中出现光生载流子的不匹配现象,从而对器件量子效率造成影响。为更好地理解带间级联探测器的级数和吸收区厚度对量子效率的影响,对基于InAs/GaSb II类超晶格的带间级联探测器进行了变温测试,并基于多级光电流的“平均效应”建立了工作在反向偏置电压的量子效率计算模型,通过与实际测试的量子效率对比,发现在低温条件下实验数据和计算结果拟合一致性较好,验证了多级带间级联探测器中基于内增益机制的光电流平均效应。但在高温条件下,实际的光电流低于“平均效应”的理论计算结果,这可能是由于高温下少数载流子寿命变短,在吸收区和弛豫区界面处存在光生载流子的复合机制。

时域有限差分法模拟量子阱红外探测器光栅的光耦合(英文)

由于量子选择定则的限制,对于量子阱红外探测器(QWIP),必须利用衍射光栅增强其光学耦合效率.本文给出了一种基于时域有限差分法(FDTD)的数值方法,计算制备在QWIP器件上的金属光栅的衍射效应.模拟计算的结果表明,FDTD方法是解析这种复杂结构内电磁场问题的有效手段.可以计算QWIP器件内各点电磁场所有分量的详细分布,进而可以估算衍射光栅的耦合效率,以及优化QWIP结构设计.

128×160元GaAs/AlGaAs多量子阱长波红外焦平面阵列

研制了128×160元GaAs/AlGaAs多量子阱红外焦平面阵列,它是目前国内报道的最大像元数的量子阱红外焦平面阵列.77K时,器件的平均黑体响应率Rv=2.81×107V/W,平均峰值探测率Dλ=1.28×1010cm·W-1·Hz1/2,峰值波长λp=8.1μm,器件的盲元率为1.22%.