Alignment of Track Oscillations during Tropical Cyclone Rapid Intensification

Recent studies on tropical cyclone(TC)intensity change indicate that the development of a vertically aligned TC circulation is a key feature of its rapid intensification(RI),however,understanding how vortex alignment occurs remains a challenging topic in TC intensity change research.Based on the simulation outputs of North Atlantic Hurricane Wilma(2005)and western North Pacific Typhoon Rammasun(2014),vortex track oscillations at different vertical levels and their associated role in vortex alignment are examined to improve our understanding of the vortex alignment during RI of TCs with initial hurricane intensity.It is found that vortex tracks at different vertical levels oscillate consistently in speed and direction during the RI of the two simulated TCs.While the consistent track oscillation reduces the oscillation tilt during RI,the reduction of vortex tilt results mainly from the mean track before RI.It is also found that the vortex tilt is primarily due to the mean vortex track before and after RI.The track oscillations are closely associated with wavenumber-1 vortex Rossby waves that are dominant wavenumber-1 circulations in the TC inner-core region.This study suggests that the dynamics of the wavenumber-1 vortex Rossby waves play an important role in the regulation of the physical processes associated with the track oscillation and vertical alignment of TCs.

Kinetic Energy Budgets during the Rapid Intensification of Typhoon Rammasun (2014)

In this study,Typhoon Rammasun(2014)was simulated using the Weather Research and Forecasting model to examine the kinetic energy during rapid intensification(RI).Budget analyses revealed that in the inner area of the typhoon,the conversion from symmetric divergent kinetic energy associated with the collocation of strong cyclonic circulation and inward flow led to an increase in the symmetric rotational kinetic energy in the lower troposphere.The increase in the symmetric rotational kinetic energy in the mid and upper troposphere resulted from the upward transport of symmetric rotational kinetic energy from the lower troposphere.In the outer area,both typhoon and Earth’s rotation played equally important roles in the conversion from symmetric divergent kinetic energy to symmetric rotational kinetic energy in the lower troposphere.The decrease in the symmetric rotational kinetic energy in the upper troposphere was caused by the conversion to asymmetric rotational kinetic energy through the collocation of symmetric tangential rotational winds and the radial advection of asymmetric tangential rotational winds by radial environmental winds.

CLIMATOLOGICAL FEATURES OF RAPIDLY INTENSIFYING (RI) TROPICAL CYCLONES IN NW PACIFIC WEST OF 135°E^1

Tropical cyclones which rapidly intensify (ΔV≥ 20 m/s in 24 h)in the Northwest Pacific Ocean west of 135°E could have adverse influence on oceanic and coastal economic activities in China, 71% of which land in China. Rapid intensification is mostly seen east and northeast of the Luzon Island. It is much correlated with sea surface temperature(≥28℃)and upper air conditions, such as enhanced subtropical high, onset of Southwest monsoon surge, invasion of modest cold air, and Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough(TUTT) etc. Abovementioned processes enhance inflows in the low level and deep convection in the area of inner core. Statistics of satellite pixels have confirmed that rapidly intensifying tropical cyclones are marked by a sharp increase in the inner core convection and stable or slowly-increasing deep convection in outer region. Non-rapidly intensifying tropical cyclones have only constant or decreased deep convection in inner core and outer region. The sharp increasing of deep convection in the inner core and the rapid warming in its upper level is a forewarning of rapid intensification of tropical cyclones.

阿拉伯海超级气旋风暴“查帕拉”(2015)快速加强过程中环境场特征

利用美国联合台风警报中心(JTWC)发布的北印度洋热带气旋数据、NOAA 0.25°×0.25°逐日OISST资料以及ERA5提供的0.25°×0.25°逐小时的再分析资料分析了阿拉伯海超级气旋风暴“查帕拉”(2015)快速加强过程中的环境场特征,结果表明:较常年平均偏暖3.0~3.5℃的暖水区,为“查帕拉”的快速加强提供了水汽和能量条件;“查帕拉”北侧的副热带西风急流和南侧的高空出流通道的建立是其快速加强的重要高空强迫条件,高层辐散风的增强促进质量流出形成强上升运动,这也伴随着旋转风动能的快速增长;在“查帕拉”快速增强时段,高层150 hPa以上存在显著的正位涡异常,高层的正位涡异常能够调整引起低层气旋性环流加强,同时中层400 hPa有显著的正位涡平流输入,正涡度在垂直方向快速增长,300 hPa附近显著增暖,内核区的垂直对流运动达到最强。

Diagnostic Study of an Extreme Explosive Cyclone over the Kuroshio/Kuroshio Extension Region

Explosive cyclones(ECs)occur frequently over the Kuroshio/Kuroshio Extension region.The most rapidly intensified EC over the Kuroshio/Kuroshio Extension region during the 42 years(1979-2020)of cold seasons(October-April)was studied to reveal the variations of the key factors at different explosive-developing stages.This EC had weak low-level baroclinicity,mid-level cyclonic-vorticity advection,and strong low-level water vapor convergence at the initial explosive-developing stage.The low-level baroclinicity and mid-level cyclonic-vorticity advection increased substantially during the maximum-deepening-rate stage.The diagnostic analyses using the Zwack-Okossi equation showed that diabatic heating was the main contributor to the initial rapid intensification of this EC.The cyclonic-vorticity advection and warm-air advection enhanced rapidly in the middle and upper troposphere and contributed to the maximum rapid intensification,whereas the diabatic heating weakened slightly in the mid-low troposphere.The relative contribution of the diabatic heating decreased from the initial explosive-developing stage to the maximum-deepening-rate stage due to the enhancement of other factors(the cyclonic-vorticity advection and warm-air advection).Furthermore,the physical factors contributing to this EC varied with the explosive-developing stage.The non-key factors at the initial explosive-developing stage need attention to forecast the rapid intensification.

INTENSITY CHANGE CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES IN THE WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC AS REVEALED BY THREE DIFFERENT DATASETS

Analyzed in this paper are the 20-yr(1991-2010)tropical cyclone(TC)intensity from three forecast centers in the Western North Pacific,i.e.China Meteorological Administration(CMA),Japan Meteorological Agency(JMA),and Joint Typhoon Warning Center(JTWC)of the United States.Results show that there is more or less discrepancy in the intensity change of a TC among different datasets.The maximum discrepancy reaches 22 hPa/6h(42 hPa/6h,33 hPa/6h)between CMA and JMA(CMA and JTWC,JMA and JTWC).Special attention is paid to the records for abrupt intensity change,which is currently a difficult issue for forecasters globally.It is found that an abrupt intensity change process recorded by one dataset can have,in some extreme cases,intensity change in another dataset varying from 0 to≥10 hPa/6h with the same sign or the opposite sign.In a total of 2511 cases experiencing rapid intensity change,only 14%have consensus among all the three datasets and 25%have agreement between two of the three datasets.In spite of such a significant uncertainty,the three datasets agree on the general statistical characteristics of abrupt intensity change,including regional and seasonal distribution,the relationship with initial intensity and TC moving speed,and persistence features.Notable disagreement is on very strong systems(SuperTY)and TCs moving very fast.

Convective Bursts Episode of the Rapidly Intensified Typhoon Mujigae(2015)

Convective burst(CB) characteristics at distinct stages of a rapidly intensified Typhoon Mujigae(2015), are investigated based on a 72-h simulation. The spatial features show that almost all CB elements develop in the eyewall. The number of CBs in the inner-core region within a 100 km radius—which account for a large proportion of the total CBs, with a sharp increase about 6 h before the onset of rapid intensification(RI)—provides some indication of the RI of the typhoon. The CBs during pre-RI and RI are examined from dynamic and thermodynamic viewpoints. The combination of lower-level convergent inflow and upper-level divergent outflow pushes a relay-race-like transmission of convective activity, favorable for the development of deep convection. A double warm-core structure is induced by the centripetal outflow sinking and warming associated with CBs, which directly accelerates RI by a sudden decrease in hydrostatic pressure. By utilizing the convection activity degree(CAD) index derived from the local total energy anomaly, a correlation formula between CBs and CAD is deduced.Furthermore, an intense CAD(ICAD) signal threshold(with a value equal to 100) to predict CBs is obtained. It is verified that this ICAD threshold is effective for estimating the occurrence of a CB episode and predicting RI of a typhoon. Therefore,this threshold may be a valuable tool for identifying CB episodes and forecasting rapidly intensified typhoons.

Analysis of an Ensemble of High-Resolution WRF Simulations for the Rapid Intensification of Super Typhoon Rammasun(2014)

Diagnostics are presented from an ensemble of high-resolution forecasts that differed markedly in their predictions of the rapid intensification(RI)of Typhoon Rammasun.We show that the basic difference stems from subtle differences in initializations of(a)500-850-h Pa environmental winds,and(b)midlevel moisture and ventilation.We then describe how these differences impact on the evolving convective organization,storm structure,and the timing of RI.As expected,ascent,diabatic heating and the secondary circulation near the inner-core are much stronger in the member that best forecasts the RI.The evolution of vortex cloudiness from this member is similar to the actual imagery,with the development of an inner cloud band wrapping inwards to form the eyewall.We present evidence that this structure,and hence the enhanced diabatic heating,is related to the tilt and associated dynamics of the developing inner-core in shear.For the most accurate ensemble member:(a)inhibition of ascent and a reduction in convection over the up-shear sector allow moistening of the boundary-layer air,which is transported to the down-shear sector to feed a developing convective asymmetry;(b)with minimal ventilation,undiluted clouds and moisture from the down-shear left quadrant are then wrapped inwards to the up-shear left quadrant to form the eyewall cloud;and(c)this process seems related to a critical down-shear tilt of the vortex from midlevels,and the vertical phase-locking of the circulation over up-shear quadrants.For the member that forecasts a much-delayed RI,these processes are inhibited by stronger vertical wind shear,initially resulting in poor vertical coherence of the circulation,lesser moisture and larger ventilation.Our analysis suggests that ensemble prediction is needed to account for the sensitivity of forecasts to a relatively narrow range of environmental wind shear,moisture and vortex inner-structure.

Role of ocean upper layer warm water in the rapid intensification of tropical cyclones: A case study of typhoon Rammasun(1409)

Rammasun intensified rapidly from tropical storm to super typhoon in the northern South China Sea（NSCS）before its landfall on Hainan Island. Analysis of observed data shows that the anomalous ocean upper layer warm water（WW） is important to the rapid intensification of Rammasun. During the period of Rammasun, sea surface temperature（SST） in the NSCS was much warmer than the climatological SST. The anomalous WW supplied more energy to Rammasun, resulting in its rapid intensification. Numerical simulations further confirm that the NSCS WW plays an important role in the rapid intensification of Rammasun. As the WW is removed, the intensification of Rammasun is only 25 h Pa, which is 58.1% of that in the original SST-forced run.

A High-resolution Simulation of Supertyphoon Rammasun(2014)--Part Ⅰ:Model Verification and Surface Energetics Analysis

A 72-h high-resolution simulation of Supertyphoon Rammasun （2014） is performed using the Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting model. The model covers an initial 18-h spin-up, the 36-h rapid intensification （RI） period in the northern South China Sea, and the 18-h period of weakening after landfall. The results show that the model reproduces the track, intensity, structure of the storm, and environmental circulations reasonably well. Analysis of the surface energetics under the storm indicates that the storm＇s intensification is closely related to the net energy gain rate （eg）, defined as the difference between the energy production （PD） due to surface entropy flux and the energy dissipation （Ds） due to surface friction near the radius of maximum wind （RMW）. Before and during the RI stage, the ~：g is high, indicating sufficient energy supply for the storm to intensify. However, the Sg decreases rapidly as the storm quickly intensifies, because the Ds increases more rapidly than the PD near the RMW. By the time the storm reaches its peak intensity, the Ds is about 20% larger than the PD near the RMW, leading to a local energetics deficit under the eyewall. During the mature stage, the PD and Ds can reach a balance within a radius of 86 km from the storm center （about 2.3 times the RMW）. This implies that the local PD under the eyewall is not large enough to balance the Ds, and the radially inward energy transport from outside the eyewall must play an important role in maintaining the storm＇s intensity, as well as its intensification.

The Effect of Warm Water and Its Weak Negative Feedback on the Rapid Intensification of Typhoon Hato(2017)

Typhoon Hato (2017) went through a rapid intensification (RI) process before making landfall in Zhuhai,Guangdong Province, as the observational data shows. Within 24 hours, its minimum sea level pressure deepened by35hPa and its maximum sustained wind speed increased by 20m s-1. According to satellite observations, Hato encountered a large area of warm water and two warm core rings before the RI process, and the average sea surface temperature cooling (SSTC) induced by Hato was only around 0.73℃. Air-sea coupled simulations were implemented to investigate the specific impact of the warm water on its RI process. The results showed that the warm water played an important role by facilitating the RI process by around 20%. Sea surface temperature budget analysis showed that the SSTC induced by mixing mechanism was not obvious due to the warm water. Besides, the cold advection hardly caused any SSTC, either. Therefore, the SSTC induced by Hato was much weaker compared with that in general cases. The negative feedback between ocean and Hato was restrained and abundant heat and moisture were sufficiently supplied to Hato. The warm water helped heat flux increase by around 20%, too. Therefore, the warm water influenced the structure and the intensity of Hato. Although there might be other factors that also participated in the RI process, this study focused on air-sea interaction in tropical cyclone forecast and discussed the impact of warm water on the intensity and structure of a tropical cyclone.

Growing Threat of Rapidly-Intensifying Tropical Cyclones in East Asia

This study examines the long-term change in the threat of landfalling tropical cyclones(TCs) in East Asia over the period 1975–2020 with a focus on rapidly intensifying(RI) TCs. The increase in the annual number of RI-TCs over the western North Pacific and the northwestward shift of their genesis location lead to an increasing trend in the annual number of landfalling RI-TCs along the coast of East Asia. The annual power dissipation index(PDI), a measure of the destructive potential of RI-TCs at landfall, also shows a significant increasing trend due to increases in the annual frequency and mean landfall intensity of landfalling RI-TCs. The increase in mean landfall intensity is related to a higher lifetime maximum intensity(LMI) and the LMI location of the landfalling RI-TCs being closer to the coast. The increase in the annual PDI of East Asia is mainly associated with landfalling TCs in the southern(the Philippines, South China, and Vietnam) and northern parts(Japan and the Korean Peninsula) of East Asia due to long-term changes in vertical wind shear and TC heat potential. The former leads to a northwestward shift of favorable environments for TC genesis and intensification, resulting in the northwestward shift in the genesis, RI, and LMI locations of RI-TCs. The latter provides more heat energy from the ocean for TC intensification, increasing its chances to undergo RI.

Analysis of the Rapid Intensification of Typhoon “Mekkhala” (2006) over the Offshore Area Based on Satellite Data

Analysis of the cloud macro characteristics of typhoon “Mekkhala” is based on FY-4A stationary meteorological satellite data. Aiming at the precipitation process during the “Mekkhala” tropical storm and typhoon, the precipitation structure characteristics were analyzed using the precipitation data retrieved from polar orbiting satellites. The results show that: in the life process of “Mekkhala”, its cloud system always presents an asymmetric structure, and the cloud area and cloud top height on the north and south sides also change constantly. When the intensity of “Mekkhala” reaches the maximum, its minimum brightness temperature range is also the largest, and the spiral structure is also the most obvious;during the precipitation process of the “Mekkhala” tropical storm and typhoon, the near-surface precipitation rate is roughly distributed in a ring shape, from the precipitation rate of the FY3-D polar-orbiting satellite and the GCOM-W1 satellite. In terms of product comparison, the precipitation rate product of the GCOM-W1 satellite responds better to low-level precipitation.

西北太平洋热带气旋强度和尺度协同变化特征

热带气旋强度和尺度是衡量其破坏性的重要指标。利用美国联合热带气旋警报中心(JTWC)最佳路径数据集和全球飓风强度统计预测计划(SHIPS)再分析数据集,对2004-2020年7-11月西北太平洋热带气旋的强度和尺度(26 m·s^(-1)大风平均半径)时空变化及协同变化特征统计分析发现,热带气旋强度与尺度在10月均达到峰值,主要表现为大而强且海上生命史长的热带气旋占比高于其他月份。热带气旋尺度伴随着强度增强(减弱)而增大(收缩),达到生命史最大尺度的时间平均滞后于最大强度时间40 h,且尺度快速膨胀及达到最大尺度的平均位置比发生快速增强和最大强度的位置更接近陆地。热带气旋初始尺度影响其最大尺度。71%大尺度涡旋在后期发展为大涡旋,其中发展为强热带气旋(不小于59 m·s^(-1))的占比为59%。热带气旋26 m·s^(-1)大风平均半径对后期尺度的影响可达66 h,说明尺度预报中不能忽略初始尺度的影响。热带气旋最大尺度增长率发生在中等强度条件下(25~50 m·s^(-1)),而最大强度增长率发生在中小尺度26 m·s^(-1)大风平均半径(50~100 km)范围。在高空辐散强、相对湿度高、海洋热含量大,且中等及较弱环境垂直风切变条件下,尺度更易向外扩展,甚至发生快速膨胀。

Super Typhoon Hinnamnor(2022)with a Record-Breaking Lifespan over the Western North Pacific

Super Typhoon Hinnamnor(2022)was a rare and unique western North Pacific typhoon,and throughout its lifespan,it exhibited all of the major features that pose current challenges in typhoon research.Specifically,during different stages of its lifespan,it experienced a sudden change of track,underwent rapid intensification,interacted and merged with another vortex,expanded in size,underwent rapid weakening,produced a strong cold wake,exhibited eyewall replacement,and underwent extratropical transition.Therefore,a timely identification and review of these features of Hinnamnor(2022),as reported in this article,will help update and enrich the case sets for each of these scientific issues and provide a background for more in-depth mechanistic studies of typhoon track,intensity,and structural changes in the future.We also believe that Hinnamnor(2022)can serve as an excellent benchmark to quickly evaluate the overall performance of different numerical models in predicting typhoon’s track,intensity,and structural changes.

西北太平洋热带气旋快速加强的环境场变量影响

利用中国气象局(CMA)整编的西北太平洋1999—2018年热带气旋最佳路径数据集和美国国家环境预报中心(NCEP)再分析资料,结合均值、标准差、极端天气阈值等方法,确定热带气旋快速加强(RI)的阈值为-29.82 hPa·(24 h)^(-1),统计发现西北太平洋地区RI主要发生在7—10月,集中在5°N~20°N、120°E~160°E洋面。通过对RI与非快速加强(non-RI)的动态合成分析,对比2类样本多个环境变量的差异,结果发现:(1)RI对环境变量的响应时间与相关系数相关,对RI响应时间越早的环境变量,与RI的相关性越大;(2)对RI影响较显著的是海表面温度、高层散度和垂直风切变,其次是中层相对湿度和低层散度,影响较弱的是低层水汽通量散度和相对涡度;(3)热带气旋初始强度影响各环境变量对RI过程发生的贡献。

2022年西北太平洋和南海台风活动特征和预报难点分析

利用1949—2021年中国气象局台风最佳路径资料、2022年中央气象台台风路径和强度实时业务资料、欧洲中期预报中心ERA-Interim逐6 h再分析资料等,对2022年西北太平洋和南海台风活动的主要特征进行分析。结果表明:2022年,台风活动的阶段性、群发性特征明显,生成位置偏北偏西,登陆我国的台风数量偏少、强度偏强,自2019年以来,已连续4年登陆台风个数偏少。预报误差分析表明,在台风生成初期、台风与西风带结合后转向以及多台风(低压)活动期间的路径预报误差较大。进一步分析台风暹芭、梅花和轩岚诺的预报难点,结果表明:“暹芭”北侧的大陆高压和高层急流的预报偏差是导致后期路径预报调整的主要原因;“梅花”登陆后陆上路径预报偏差主要由模式对引导气流的预报偏差所致;“轩岚诺”路径和强度变化复杂,在其快速加强和快速减弱的速率、结构变化导致的强度波动和尺度变化等方面存在预报偏差。

热带气旋快速加强与海表温度分布统计特征研究

为加强海表温度对热带气旋快速加强影响的认识,利用中国气象局上海台风研究所整编的热带气旋最佳路径数据集和欧洲中尺度天气预报中心提供的海温数据,选取1979-2019年期间的西北太平洋热带气旋,统计分析了海温和热带气旋强度快速变化的特征。研究结果表明:(1)约90%的热带气旋快速加强发生在夏季和秋季,分别占快速加强总次数的32.8%和56.4%,绝大部分热带气旋以跨越1个强度等级的快速加强为主,由强热带风暴快速加强到台风和由台风快速加强到强台风是出现次数较多的两种情况。(2)夏季大于28℃,秋季大于27.5℃的海表温度条件有利于热带气旋快速加强,较低强度等级的热带气旋需要更高的海表温度(> 29℃)才易出现快速加强;热带气旋快速移动有利于其中心处海温维持较高状态。(3)海温的时间变率在±0.2℃/(6 h)内,水平空间梯度低于0.4℃/(°)是热带气旋快速加强的有利条件;热带气旋强度越强,越需要平稳的海表温度环境。(4)热带气旋处于强热带风暴及以上级别时,仅利用海表温度条件对其是否发生快速加强的判断准确性较好。这一工作量化了有利于热带气旋加强的海表温度环境,为业务上基于海表温度定量预报热带气旋强度演变提供了一种技术参考。

基于四套不同数据集的西北太平洋热带气旋快速增强现象统计对比分析

利用中国气象局(China Meteorological Administration, CMA)上海台风研究所、美国联合台风警报中心(Joint Typhoon Warning Center, JTWC)、日本气象厅(Japan Meteorological Agency, JMA)和中国香港天文台(Hong Kong Observatory, HKO)发布的四套热带气旋(Tropical cyclone, TC)最佳路径集资料,对比分析了1985—2014年间发生于西北太平洋上TC快速增强(Rapid intensification, RI)现象。根据TC记录24 h强度变化的上95%累积概率分位确定四套资料RI阈值分别为26 kn(CMA)、30 kn(JTWC)、25 kn(JMA)和25 kn(HKO)。四套RI样本时空分布特征差异不大,TC多发于菲律宾以东的西太平洋暖池区,以9、10月份最多。对比发现,JTWC资料中1~3级TC发生RI的频数和比例均远高于其他资料,经历RI后多增强为4~5级TC,从而导致强台风频数高于其他资料。考虑到四套资料在确定台风强度(定强)时使用的风速标准不同,利用CI指数与近地面最大风速转换表将其统一为1 min风速平均标准后发现,在RI频数以及4~5级TC频数方面,转换后的JMA资料与JTWC资料较为一致,CMA资料和HKO资料相近,但较前述两家明显偏少。这表明RI数量的差异不仅是因为采用的风速平均标准不同,也是因为对强台风的定强方面存在差异,但该差异在2005年后明显缩小。

西北太平洋热带气旋快速增强前后降水特征的差异

【目的】探讨西北太平洋1998―2019年快速增强(RI)热带气旋(TC)的基本特征,以及RI发生前后TC内核区与雨带区的降水及其总降水的变化特征。【方法】利用IBTrACS最佳路径数据集、TRMM卫星降水格点数据和ERA-5再分析资料,对22 a发生在西北太平洋共132个RITC进行统计,分析RITC的时空特征和降水变化趋势,并利用总柱水汽含量的变化趋势分析其降水的变化特征。【结果与结论】(1)RITC主要发生在8-11月份菲律宾以东海域,大部分TC的RI过程发生在热带风暴形成后的72 h内,其持续时间通常为24~48 h。(2)在RI发生前后,TC内核区降水变化趋势相反,该区域降水类型不同:RI发生前,TC内核区降水随时间递减,且以对流降水为主;RI发生后,该区域降水随时间递增,且层状降水为主。(3)在RI发生前后,TC雨带区和总降水的变化趋势及降水类型基本一致:RI发生前,TC雨带区降水和总降水的层状和对流降水变化趋势都不明显;RI发生后,TC雨带区降水变化呈略微下降,TC总降水无明显变化。