Stability and accuracy of central difference method for real-time dynamic substructure testing considering mass participation coefficient

For real-time dynamic substructure testing(RTDST),the influence of the inertia force of fluid specimens on the stability and accuracy of the integration algorithms has never been investigated.Therefore,this study proposes to investigate the stability and accuracy of the central difference method(CDM)for RTDST considering the specimen mass participation coefficient.First,the theory of the CDM for RTDST is presented.Next,the stability and accuracy of the CDM for RTDST considering the specimen mass participation coefficient are investigated.Finally,numerical simulations and experimental tests are conducted for verifying the effectiveness of the method.The study indicates that the stability of the algorithm is affected by the mass participation coefficient of the specimen,and the stability limit first increases and then decreases as the mass participation coefficient increases.In most cases,the mass participation coefficient will increase the stability limit of the algorithm,but in specific circumstances,the algorithm may lose its stability.The stability and accuracy of the CDM considering the mass participation coefficient are verified by numerical simulations and experimental tests on a three-story frame structure with a tuned liquid damper.

Simulation of large-scale numerical substructure in real-time dynamic hybrid testing

A solution scheme is proposed in this paper for an existing RTDHT system to simulate large-scale finite element （FE） numerical substructures. The analysis of the FE numerical substructure is split into response analysis and signal generation tasks, and executed in two different target computers in real-time. One target computer implements the response analysis task, wherein a large time-step is used to solve the FE substructure, and another target computer implements the signal generation task, wherein an interpolation program is used to generate control signals in a small time-step to meet the input demand of the controller. By using this strategy, the scale of the FE numerical substructure simulation may be increased significantly. The proposed scheme is initially verified by two FE numerical substructure models with 98 and 1240 degrees of freedom （DOFs）. Thereafter, RTDHTs of a single frame-foundation structure are implemented where the foundation, considered as the numerical substructure, is simulated by the FE model with 1240 DOFs. Good agreements between the results of the RTDHT and those from the FE analysis in ABAQUS are obtained.

Velocity plus displacement equivalent force control for real-time substructure testing

This paper employs a velocity plus displacement（V＋D）-based equivalent force control（EFC） method to solve the velocity/displacement difference equation in a real-time substructure test. This method uses type 2 feedback control loops to replace mathematical iteration to solve the nonlinear dynamic equation. A spectral radius analysis of the amplification matrix shows that the type 2 EFC-explicit, Newmark-β method has beneficial numerical characteristics for this method. Its stability limit of Ω = 2 remains unchanged regardless of the system damping because the velocity is achieved with very high accuracy during simulation. In contrast, the stability limits of the central difference method using direct velocity prediction and the EFC-average acceleration method with linear interpolation are shown to decrease with an increase in system damping. In fact, the EFC-average acceleration method is shown to change from unconditionally stable to conditionally stable. We also show that if an over-damped system with a damping ratio of 1.05 is considered, the stability limit is reduced to Ω =1.45. Finally, the results from an experiment with a single-degree-of-freedom structure installed with a magneto-rheological（MR） damper are presented. The results demonstrate that the proposed method is able to follow both displacement and velocity commands with moderate accuracy, resulting in improved test performance and accuracy for structures that are sensitive to both velocity and displacement inputs. Although the findings of the study are promising, additional test data and several further improvements will be required to draw general conclusions.

Delay-dependent stability and added damping of SDOF real-time dynamic hybrid testing

It is well-recognized that a transfer system response delay that reduces the test stability inevitably exists in real-time dynamic hybrid testing （RTDHT）. This paper focuses on the delay-dependent stability and added damping of SDOF systems in RTDHT. The exponential delay term is transferred into a rational fraction by the Pad6 approximation, and the delay-dependent stability conditions and instability mechanism of SDOF RTDHT systems are investigated by the root locus technique. First, the stability conditions are discussed separately for the cases of stiffness, mass, and damping experimental substructure. The use of root locus plots shows that the added damping effect and instability mechanism for mass are different from those for stiffness. For the stiffness experimental substructure case, the instability results from the inherent mode because of an obvious negative damping effect of the delay. For the mass case, the delay introduces an equivalent positive damping into the inherent mode, and instability occurs at an added high frequency mode. Then, the compound stability condition is investigated for a general case and the results show that the mass ratio may have both upper and lower limits to remain stable. Finally, a high-emulational virtual shaking table model is built to validate the stability conclusions.

Flexible substructure online hybrid test system using conventional testing devices

This paper presents a substructure online hybrid test system that is extensible for geographically distributed tests. This system consists of a set of devices conventionally used for cyclic tests to load the tested substructures onto the target displacement or the target force. Due to their robustness and portability, individual sets of conventional loading devices can be transported and reconfigured to realize physical loading in geographically remote laboratories. Another appealing feature is the flexible displacement-force mixed control that is particularly suitable for specimens having large disparities in stiffness during various performance stages. To conduct a substructure online hybrid test, an extensible framework is developed, which is equipped with a generalized interface to encapsulate each substructure. Multiple tested substructures and analyzed substructures using various structural program codes can be accommodated within the single framework, simply interfaced with the boundary displacements and forces. A coordinator program is developed to keep the boundaries among all substructures compatible and equilibrated. An Interuet-based data exchange scheme is also devised to transfer data among computers equipped with different software environments. A series of online hybrid tests are introduced, and the portability, flexibility, and extensibility of the online hybrid test system are demonstrated.

Substructure hybrid testing of reinforced concrete shear wall structure using a domain overlapping technique

An online hybrid test was carried out on a 40-story 120-m high concrete shear wall structure. The structure was divided into two substructures whereby a physical model of the bottom three stories was tested in the laboratory and the upper 37 stories were simulated numerically using ABAQUS. An overlapping domain method was employed for the bottom three stories to ensure the validity of the boundary conditions of the superstructure. Mixed control was adopted in the test. Displacement control was used to apply the horizontal displacement, while two controlled force actuators were applied to simulate the overturning moment, which is very large and cannot be ignored in the substructure hybrid test of high-rise buildings. A series of tests with earthquake sources of sequentially increasing intensities were carried out. The test results indicate that the proposed hybrid test method is a solution to reproduce the seismic response of high-rise concrete shear wall buildings. The seismic performance of the tested precast high-rise building satisfies the requirements of the Chinese seismic design code.

Real-Time Hybrid Simulation of Seismically Isolated Structures with Full-Scale Bearings and Large Computational Models

Hybrid simulation can be a cost effective approach for dynamic testing of structural components at full scale while capturing the system level response through interactions with a numerical model.The dynamic response of a seismically isolated structure depends on the combined characteristics of the ground motion,bearings,and superstructure.Therefore,dynamic full-scale system level tests of isolated structures under realistic dynamic loading conditions are desirable towards a holistic validation of this earthquake protection strategy.Moreover,bearing properties and their ultimate behavior have been shown to be highly dependent on rate-of-loading and scale size effects,especially under extreme loading conditions.Few laboratory facilities can test full-scale seismic isolation bearings under prescribed displacement and/or loading protocols.The adaptation of a full-scale bearing test machine for the implementation of real-time hybrid simulation is presented here with a focus on the challenges encountered in attaining reliable simulation results for large scale dynamic tests.These advanced real-time hybrid simulations of large and complex hybrid models with several thousands of degrees of freedom are some of the first to use high performance parallel computing to rapidly execute the numerical analyses.Challenges in the experimental setup included measured forces contaminated by delay and other systematic control errors in applying desired displacements.Friction and inertial forces generated by the large-scale loading apparatus can affect the accuracy of measured force feedbacks.Reliable results from real-time hybrid simulation requires implementation of compensation algorithms and correction of these various sources of errors.Overall,this research program confirms that real-time hybrid simulation is a viable testing method to experimentally assess the behavior of full-scale isolators while capturing interactions with the numerical models of the superstructure to evaluate system level and in-structure response.

Seismic performance evaluation of VCFPB isolated storage tank using real-time hybrid simulation

Variable curvature friction pendulum bearings(VCFPB)effectively reduce the dynamic response of storage tanks induced by earthquakes.Shaking table testing is used to assess the seismic performance of VCFPB isolated storage tanks.However,the vertical pressure and friction coefficient of the scaled VCFPB in the shaking table tests cannot match the equivalent values of these parameters in the prototype.To avoid this drawback,a real-time hybrid simulation(RTHS)test was developed.Using RTHS testing,a 1/8 scaled tank isolated by VCFPB was tested.The experimental results showed that the displacement dynamic magnification factor of VCFPB,peak reduction factors of the acceleration,shear force,and overturning moment at bottom of the tank,were negative exponential functions of the ratio of peak ground acceleration(PGA)and friction coefficient.The peak reduction factors of displacement,acceleration,force and overturning moment,which were obtained from the experimental results,are compared with those calculated by the Housner model.It can be concluded that the Housner model is applicable in estimation of the acceleration,shear force,and overturning moment of liquid storage tank,but not for the sliding displacement of VCFPBs.

Geographically distributed hybrid testing & collaboration between geotechnical centrifuge and structures laboratories

Distributed Hybrid Testing（DHT） is an experimental technique designed to capitalise on advances in modern networking infrastructure to overcome traditional laboratory capacity limitations. By coupling the heterogeneous test apparatus and computational resources of geographically distributed laboratories, DHT provides the means to take on complex, multi-disciplinary challenges with new forms of communication and collaboration. To introduce the opportunity and practicability afforded by DHT, here an exemplar multi-site test is addressed in which a dedicated fibre network and suite of custom software is used to connect the geotechnical centrifuge at the University of Cambridge with a variety of structural dynamics loading apparatus at the University of Oxford and the University of Bristol. While centrifuge time-scaling prevents real-time rates of loading in this test, such experiments may be used to gain valuable insights into physical phenomena, test procedure and accuracy. These and other related experiments have led to the development of the real-time DHT technique and the creation of a flexible framework that aims to facilitate future distributed tests within the UK and beyond. As a further example, a real-time DHT experiment between structural labs using this framework for testing across the Internet is also presented.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR PARALLEL HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Energy management strategy (EMS) is the core of the real-time controlalgorithm of the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). A novel EMS using the logic threshold approach withincorporation of a stand-by optimization algorithm is proposed. The aim of it is to minimize theengine fuel consumption and maintain the battery state of charge (SOC) in its operation range, whilesatisfying the vehicle performance and drivability requirements. The hybrid powertrain bench testis carried out to collect data of the engine, motor and battery pack, which are used in the EMS tocontrol the powertrain. Computer simulation model of the HEV is established in the MATLAB/Simulinkenvironment according to the bench test results. Simulation results are presented for behaviors ofthe engine, motor and battery. The proposed EMS is implemented for a real parallel hybrid carcontrol system and validated by vehicle field tests.

基于改进Smith预估器的振动台子结构试验方法研究

振动台子结构试验是一种有效的实时结构混合试验方法,利用振动台和其他加载装置进行联合加载,可以提升振动台的加载能力。针对试验过程中受到干扰影响的振动台子结构试验控制系统,提出一种基于Smith预估器的控制方法。介绍了基于主动质量驱动器加载方法的振动台子结构试验装置和工作原理以及Smith预估器的实现方式。分析了时滞对控制系统的影响,当控制系统引入4 ms的时滞时,仿真结果发散,系统模型存在纯滞后环节,因此容易发生较严重的震荡。为解决此问题,引入Smith预估器与改进的Smith预估器并进行相应的数值仿真工作。仿真结果表明:基于传统Smith预估器的振动台子结构试验方法能够保证系统仿真结果不再发散,但其结果较为一般;而基于改进Smith预估器的振动台子结构试验方法结果更为理想,其峰值误差与均方根误差等相关评价指标都相对较小,说明所提方法可以有效解决时滞系统的稳定性问题。

基于BP神经网络的离线迭代混合试验方法研究

利用反向传播(误差逆传播算法back propagation algorithm,BP简称反向传播算法)神经网络对非线性结构位移-力系统进行拟合,将训练好神经网络作为试验子结构与数值子结构联合求解,省去了混合试验中试验子结构与数值子结构之间的实时数据交互,并通过迭代训练样本的方法不断逼近真实响应,克服了神经网络需要大量训练样本的问题。通过对两个自由度的非线性结构进行混合试验数值仿真,验证了该方法的可行性。以实际工程的一榀框架为混合试验对象,取一个隔震垫作为试验子结构进行数值仿真,进一步验证了该方法的有效性。

位移控制的子结构地震模拟振动台混合试验方法

为了解决地震模拟振动台承载能力及台面尺寸对大型结构试验的限制,扩展振动台的功能,提出了位移控制子结构地震模拟振动台混合试验方法,包括试验原理、试验过程及数值积分方法,并给出了2种子结构边界条件的模拟形式。通过1个简单框架结构的地震模拟振动台试验和子结构混合加载试验验证了该方法的可行性,并指出了该试验方法的主要技术问题。混合试验方法通过子结构技术和振动台试验相结合,解决了目前的地震模拟振动台试验和拟动力试验在设备规模和加载速度上的局限性。

加载速率对速度控制型实时子结构拟动力实验结果的影响

运用DSP高速数字信号处理器的实时信号处理与控制技术,研究基于速度控制法、Operator Splitting(OS)数值积分法和相应的实验误差控制法的实时子结构拟动力实验系统.该试验控制系统对试验动力加载装置采用速度控制,通过速度控制程序实现了减少加载速率对实验结果的影响,使橡胶隔震支座的速度相关性能在试验过程中得到充分体现,同时也有效地减少了实验的时滞误差;并进一步通过实时子结构拟动力试验研究加载速度对桥梁实时子结构实验结果的影响.实验结果证明,橡胶隔震支座是速度相关性很强的实验构件,不同时间因子的地震波拟动力子结构试验结果有很大的不同.实时地震波拟动力子结构试验的实验结果比时间因子为0.2和0.5的实验结果小.

基于MTS加载系统及OpenFresco网络平台的远程协同子结构拟动力试验方法研究

西安建筑科技大学结构与抗震实验室和新疆大学结构实验室合作,以一个两层三跨钢框架结构为试验对象,进行了国内首例跨省远程协同子结构混合仿真拟动力试验。试验结果表明:OpenFresco网络平台通讯性能良好,数据远程传输消耗时间可忽略;通过两所大学实验室测得的力、位移、加速度等试验数据的对比分析,表明该试验系统具有良好的精确性及稳定性;通过OpenFresco网络平台,能够准确远程控制异地实验室的MTS试验系统进行协同工作,从而完成结构简单的子结构混合仿真拟动力试验,为下一步进行大型、复杂结构的子结构混合仿真拟动力试验提供了必要的理论和实践基础。

子结构地震模拟振动台混合试验原理与实现

为了解决地震模拟振动台承载能力及台面尺寸对大型结构试验的限制,扩展振动台的功能,本文提出了子结构地震模拟振动台混合试验方法、试验过程及实时数值积分方法,并给出了试验子结构边界条件的两种模拟形式。通过一个简单框架结构的地震模拟振动台试验和子结构混合加载试验验证了该方法的可行性,并指出了该试验方法的主要技术问题。混合试验方法通过子结构技术和振动台试验相结合,解决了目前的地震模拟振动台试验和拟动力试验在设备规模和加载速度上的局限性。

OpenSees混合模拟试验技术发展与应用

将现代结构地震性能模拟与试验分为整体结构模拟试验和子结构模拟试验两类.在此基础之上详细讨论了混合模拟试验的基本概念背景及其应用与发展现状.结合面相对象有限元程序OpenSees的高层程序架构和并行计算程序架构,详细论述了基于OpenSees的4种混合模拟试验系统,并简要介绍了多尺度一体化混合建模的概念与应用.证明基于商业或非商业有限元软件平台开展混合模拟试验是可行的;混合模拟试验所要处理的核心问题是如何将不同的有限元软件平台以及各个试验站点的设备联系起来,并实现相互之间的协同工作.混合模拟试验在强震作用下结构连续倒塌问题的研究中具有一定的优势.指出混合模拟试验这一新技术的实质性发展离不开目前所强调的多学科之间的无缝融合.

采用消能连梁的高层结构整体分析与试验研究

消能连梁采用阻尼器耗能,保护混凝土主体结构,是近年来发展出来的一种有效的高层结构消能减震体系。本文针对带消能连梁的框架剪力墙结构体系进行整体有限元分析,研究了具有不同层数的框架剪力墙结构地震响应,分析消能连梁的能量耗散情况和对整体结构动力响应的控制效果,研究表明消能连梁能够分别降低首层墙肢和框架的能量耗散的65.5%和39.0%,同时可降低结构35.4%-42.0%的层间位移角和41.0%-44.4%的基底剪力。随后对某一18层高层建筑进行了子结构混合试验研究,试验体底部为6层联肢墙,采用1/3缩尺,其余结构分为上部剪力墙数值子结构和框架数值子结构,分别采用ABAQUS软件进行分析,三者协同工作,共同完成大震响应模拟。子结构混合试验结果表明,消能连梁可有效降低结构的整体响应,层间位移角降低16%、基底剪力降低21%。同时可控制连梁损伤,提高结构耗能能力。

基于TMD加载的振动台子结构试验技术研究

为克服常规振动台子结构试验需要设置大行程作动器和附加反力墙,实施难度大,控制比较复杂的困难,本文以调谐质量阻尼器(Tuned Mass Damper,TMD)作为振动台子结构试验的一种简化加载装置,给出了TMD装置动力参数的设计方法,通过数值模拟和振动台试验检验了基于TMD加载的振动台子结构试验的控制效果。研究表明,合理设计TMD装置的控制参数可以在一定程度上满足振动台试验的控制精度要求,TMD加载方法适用于特定结构形式的振动台子结构试验。

隔震桥梁地震反应速度控制型实时子结构试验

研究速度控制型实时子结构拟动力试验系统,并通过试验直接考察在地震中天然橡胶支座(NR)、高阻尼隔震橡胶支座(HDR)和超高阻尼隔震橡胶支座(HDR-S)等速度相关型隔震支座对桥梁的减隔震效果.速度控制型实时子结构拟动力试验系统实现实时子结构试验的速度控制,在试验过程中充分地考虑到加载速度对拟动力试验结果的影响,高精度地模拟了隔震桥梁的地震反应.试验结果证明,对于速度相关型试验试件这种试验系统拥有足够的精度.通过对比3种不同隔震橡胶支座的试验结果,证明了超高阻尼隔震橡胶支座对隔震桥梁结构具有优良的隔震减震效果.