A survey of real-time rendering on Web3D application

Background In recent years, with the rapid development of mobile Internet and Web3D technologies, a large number of web-based online 3D visualization applications have emerged. Web3D applications, including Web3D online tourism, Web3D online architecture, Web3D online education environment, Web3D online medical care, and Web3D online shopping are examples of these applications that leverage 3D rendering on the web. These applications have pushed the boundaries of traditional web applications that use text, sound, image, video, and 2D animation as their main communication media, and resorted to 3D virtual scenes as the main interaction object, enabling a user experience that delivers a strong sense of immersion. This paper approached the emerging Web3D applications that generate stronger impacts on people's lives through “real-time rendering technology”, which is the core technology of Web3D. This paper discusses all the major 3D graphics APIs of Web3D and the well-known Web3D engines at home and abroad and classify the real-time rendering frameworks of Web3D applications into different categories. Results Finally, this study analyzed the specific demand posed by different fields to Web3D applications by referring to the representative Web3D applications in each particular field. Conclusions Our survey results show that Web3D applications based on real-time rendering have in-depth sectors of society and even family, which is a trend that has influence on every line of industry.

Real-Time Rendering of Large-Scale Ocean Environments

Simulation and rendering of large-scale natural environments, especially the ocean, has always been one of the hot issues in computer graphics, which can provide realism for various applications such as computer game, movie and military usage. Simulation of ocean environment is often lack of realism for real-time application due to its complexity of dynamic waves. In this paper, a method based on FFT Wave model is proposed to solve this problem, which can also simulate the ocean optic property with atmosphere scattering. Furthermore, our method has a lot of advantages including global ocean dataset support, real-time, dynamic reflection of ocean, the foam on the wave, smooth transition from deep ocean to seacoast, etc. The experimental results demonstrate the realism and effectiveness of our approach.

Real-Time Rendering of Dynamic Clouds Using Multi-Resolution Adaptive Grids

The multi-resolution adaptive grids method is proposed to solve the problems of inefficiency in the previous grid-based methods,and it can be used in clouds simulation as well as the interactive simulation between objects and clouds.Oriented bounding box(OBB)hierarchical trees of objects are established,and the resolutions of global and local grids can be selected automatically.The motion equations of fluid dynamics are simplified.Upwind difference is applied to ensure the stability of the simulation process during the discrete process of partial differential equations.To solve the speed problem of existed phase functions,the improved phase function is applied to the illumination calculation of clouds.Experimental results show that the proposed methods can promote the simulation efficiency and meet the need for the simulation of large-scale clouds scene.Real-time rendering of clouds and the interaction between clouds and objects have been realized without preprocessing stage.

Two-phase real-time rendering method for realistic water refraction

Background Realistic rendering has been an important g oal of several interactive applications,which requires an efficient virtual simulation of many special effects that are common in the real world.However,refraction is often ignored in these applications.Rendering the refraction effect is extremely complicated and time-consuming.Methods In this study,a simple,efficient,and fast rendering technique of water refraction effects is proposed.This technique comprises a broad and narrow phase.In the broad phase,the water surface is considered flat.The vertices of underwater meshes are transformed based on Snell's Law.In the narrow phase,the effects of waves on the water surface are examined.Every pixel on the water surface mesh is collected by a screen-space method with an extra rendering pass.The broad phase redirects most pixels that need to be recalculated in the narrow phase to the pixels in the rendering buffer.Results We analyzed the performances of three different conventional methods and ours in rendering refraction effects for the same scenes.The proposed method obtains higher frame rate and physical accuracy comparing with other methods.It is used in several game scenes,and realistic water refraction effects can be generated efficiently.Conclusions The two-phase water refraction method produces a tradeoff between efficiency and quality.It is easy to implement in modern game engines,and thus improve the quality of rendering scenes in video games or other real-ti me applications.

Terrain Rendering LOD Algorithm Based on Improved Restrictive Quadtree Segmentation and Variation Coefficient of Elevation

Aiming to deal with the difficult issues of terrain data model simplification and crack disposal,the paper proposed an improved level of detail(LOD)terrain rendering algorithm,in which a variation coefficient of elevation is introduced to express the undulation of topography.Then the coefficient is used to construct a node evaluation function in the terrain data model simplification step.Furthermore,an edge reduction strategy is combined with the improved restrictive quadtree segmentation to handle the crack problem.The experiment results demonstrated that the proposed method can reduce the amount of rendering triangles and enhance the rendering speed on the premise of ensuring the rendering effect compared with a traditional LOD algorithm.

Data-based real-time petrochemical gas diffusion simulation approach on virtual reality

Background Petrochemical products possess a high risk of flammability,explosivity,and toxicity,making petrochemical accidents exceedingly destructive.Therefore,disaster analysis,prediction,and real-time simulations have become important means of controlling and reducing accident hazards.Methods This study proposes a complete real-time simulation solution of gas diffusion with coordinate and concentration data,which was mainly aimed at simulating the types of harmful gas leakage and diffusion accidents in the petrochemical industry.The rendering effect was more continuous and accurate through grid homogenization and trilinear interpolation.This study presents a data processing and rendering parallelization process to enhance simulation efficiency.Gas concentration and fragment transparency were combined to synthesize transparent pixels in a scene.To ensure the approximate accuracy of the rendering effect,improve the efficiency of real-time rendering,and meet the requirement of intuitive perception using concentration data,a weighted blended order-independent transparency(OIT)with enhanced alpha weight is presented,which can provide a more intuitive perception of the hierarchical information of concentration data while preserving depth information.This study compares and analyzes three OIT algorithms-depth peeling,weighted blended OIT,and weighted blended OIT with enhanced alpha weight-in terms of rendering image quality,rendering time,required memory,and hierarchical information.Results Using weighted blended OIT with an enhanced alpha weight technique,the rendering time was shortened by 53.2%compared with that of the depth peeling algorithm,and the texture memory required was significantly smaller than that of the depth peeling algorithm.The rendering results of weighted blended OIT with an enhanced alpha weight were approximately accurate compared with those of the depth peeling algorithm as the ground truth,and there was no popping when surfaces passed through one another.Simultaneously,compared with weighted blended OIT,weighted blended OIT with an enhanced alpha weight achieved an intuitive perception of the hierarchical information of concentration data.

Real-time rendering of layered materials with anisotropic normal distributions

This paper proposes a lightweight bidirectional scattering distribution function(BSDF)model for layered materials with anisotropic reflection and refraction properties.In our method,each layer of the materials can be described by a microfacet BSDF using an anisotropic normal distribution function(NDF).Furthermore,the NDFs of layers can be defined on tangent vector fields,which differ from layer to layer.Our method is based on a previous study in which isotropic BSDFs are approximated by projecting them onto base planes.However,the adequateness of this previous work has not been well investigated for anisotropic BSDFs.In this paper,we demonstrate that the projection is also applicable to anisotropic BSDFs and that the BSDFs are approximated by elliptical distributions using covariance matrices.

Large-Scale Terrain Simplification and Visualization Based on TIN

In the preprocessing phase, the global terrain model is partitioned into blocks with their feature points being picked out to generate TIN model for each terrain block, then the multi-resolution models of terrain organized in the form of quad-tree is created bottom-up. Cracks between terrain blocks are avoided by inserting vertices to form common boundaries. At run-time, a view-dependent LOD algorithm is used to control the loading and unloading of the proper blocks by an additional synchronous thread. To eliminate the artifacts created by LOD transitions, geomorphing is used in real-time. These rendering strategies increase the throughput of GPU and avoid imbalance of load among CPU, GPU and Disk I/O. Experimental results show that the system can perform visually smooth rendering of large-scale terrain scenes with fine quality at an average rate of 80 fps.

Dynamic Terrain Visualization Based on ROAM and OGRE

Terrain Visualization is an important part of visualization systems of battlefield,and the visualization of dynamic terrain is also important for dynamic battle environment.In this paper,special attention has been paid on real-time optimally adapting meshes (ROAM) algorithm,which is a candidate for dynamic terrain,and its mesh representation,mesh continuity algorithm and error metrics are discussed.The DEXTER-ROAM algorithm is discussed and analyzed.By revising the mesh representation of ROAM,a dynamic ROAM algorithm based on partial-regular grid is established.By introducing transition region,mesh discontinuity of dynamic partial-regular grid is resolved.Error metric blocks are removed for computation complexity and culling blocks are introduced to accelerate view frustum culling.The algorithm is implemented in a 3D rendering engine called OGRE.In the end,an example of dynamic crater is given to examine the dynamic ROAM algorithm.

A Fast Ambient Occlusion Method for Real-Time Plant Rendering

Global illumination effects are crucial for virtual plant rendering. Whereas real-time global illumination rendering of plants is impractical, ambient occlusion is an efficient alternative approximation. A tree model with millions of triangles is common, and the triangles can be considered as randomly distributed. The existing ambient occlusion methods fail to apply on such a type of object. In this paper, we present a new ambient occlusion method dedicated to real time plant rendering with limited user interaction. This method is a three-step ambient occlusion calculation framework which is suitable for a huge number of geometry objects distributed randomly in space. The complexity of the proposed algorithm is O（n）, compared to the conventional methods with complexities of O（n^2）. Furthermore, parameters in this method can be easily adjusted to achieve flexible ambient occlusion effects. With this ambient occlusion calculation method, we can manipulate plant models with millions of organs, as well as geometry objects with large number of randomly distributed components with affordable time, and with perceptual quality comparable to the previous ambient occlusion methods.

Domino Tiling:A New Method of Real-Time Conforming Mesh Construction for Rendering Changeable Height Fields

In this paper we present a novel GPU-oriented method of creating an inherently continuous triangular mesh for tile-based rendering of regular height fields. The method is based on tiling data-independent semi-regular meshes of non-uniform structure, a technique that is quite different from other mesh tiling approaches. A complete, memory efficient set of mesh patterns is created by an off-line procedure and stored into the graphics adapter＇s memory at runtime. At rendering time, for each tile, one of the precomputed mesh patterns is selected for rendering. The selected mesh pattern fits the required level of details of the tile and ensures seamless connection with other adjacent mesh patterns, like in a game of dominoes. The scalability potential of the proposed method is demonstrated through quadtree hierarchical grouping of tiles. The efficiency is verified by experimental results on height fields for terrain representation, where the method achieves high frame rates and sustained triangle throughput on high resolution viewports with sub-pixel error tolerance. Frame rate sensitivity to real-time modifications of the height field is measured, and it is shown that the method is very tolerant and consequently well tailored for applications dealing with rapidly changeable phenomena represented by height fields.

基于TMS的数字孪生城市分层影像数据实时绘制方法

3维地形绘制在军事、农业、交通、智慧城市等众多行业中应用广泛,其中影像数据的处理方式主要采用空间网格划分和建立不同层级的瓦片数据。为了提高3维地形的分辨率,切割的瓦片数量呈指数增长,海量瓦片数据的访问、索引和绘制的技术难题,本文提出了一种基于TMS(tile map senice)的分层影像数据实时绘制方法,避免不同层级影像衔接处出现严重色差;构建不同影像层的服务对象,并实现大量数字孪生城市分层影像的层级、顺序、位置的灵活控制管理;根据视口中的加载瓦片的相对优先级,存入高、中、低3个队列,以加速瓦片数据的调度与绘制。为了加速影像瓦片索引获取,根据视口内的瓦片矩阵范围计算屏幕像素大小,获取影像瓦片的初步层级后与当前文件资源的层级比较确定影像的最终层级,计算视口内影像瓦片的索引和根据经纬度、层级计算行列号,从而形成影像资源的请求路径。在多层影像绘制过程中,根据影像层级大小依次从最底层开始两两图层依次混合,得到正确的混合结果。本文针对实际应用中的近、中、远景及沿海等多层影像数据进行了3维地形绘制实验,结果表明,在NVIDIA 2070显卡上能够达到300 FPS的高实时性能,并且达到无影像层级色差且高质量的绘制效果。本方法能够灵活地绘制大规模多层级影像数据,构建出数字孪生城市场景的3维地形。

Foveated rendering:A state-of-the-art survey

Recently,virtual reality(VR)technology has been widely used in medical,military,manufacturing,entertainment,and other fields.These applications must simulate different complex material surfaces,various dynamic objects,and complex physical phenomena,increasing the complexity of VR scenes.Current computing devices cannot efficiently render these complex scenes in real time,and delayed rendering makes the content observed by the user inconsistent with the user’s interaction,causing discomfort.Foveated rendering is a promising technique that can accelerate rendering.It takes advantage of human eyes’inherent features and renders different regions with different qualities without sacrificing perceived visual quality.Foveated rendering research has a history of 31 years and is mainly focused on solving the following three problems.The first is to apply perceptual models of the human visual system into foveated rendering.The second is to render the image with different qualities according to foveation principles.The third is to integrate foveated rendering into existing rendering paradigms to improve rendering performance.In this survey,we review foveated rendering research from 1990 to 2021.We first revisit the visual perceptual models related to foveated rendering.Subsequently,we propose a new foveated rendering taxonomy and then classify and review the research on this basis.Finally,we discuss potential opportunities and open questions in the foveated rendering field.We anticipate that this survey will provide new researchers with a high-level overview of the state-of-the-art in this field,furnish experts with up-to-date information,and offer ideas alongside a framework to VR display software and hardware designers and engineers.

A new real-time algorithm for off-road terrain estimation using laser data

Gaussian mixture algorithm （GMA） is an effective approach for off-road terrain estimation, but still suffers from some difficulties in practical applications, such as complex calculation and object abstraction. In this paper, GMA is modified to improve its real-time performance and to provide it with a potential ability of obstacle detection. First, a selection window is designed based on the dominant-ellipse-principle to limit the probability distribution area of each measurement point, therefore avoiding the calculation on the cells outside the dominant ellipse. Second, a clustering approach is proposed in order to distinguish objects efficiently and decrease the operation area of one laser scan. Third, a virtual point vector is introduced to further reduce the computational load of the mean square error matrix. The modified GMA is experimented on a tracked mobile robot, and its improved performance is shown in comparison to the original GMA.

基于分布式渲染架构的远程可视化研究

互联网带宽的增长催生了远程可视化,它有着更好的分享性、移动性和方便性.针对大规模数据的远程可视化问题,提出了一种基于Sort-Last的分布式渲染架构,给出了基于GPU的融合、抗锯齿等算法.该架构用于远程可视化的服务器端,包括渲染节点、融合节点和任务节点等3层结构,具有良好的可扩展性.基于此,实现了一个远程可视化系统Waterman,提供基于Internet的高精地形渲染和海洋排放口污水扩散可视化服务,并给出了详细的设计方法和技术细节,包括基于Raycasting的地形渲染算法、基于陆地掩蔽(mask)方法的海面渲染技术和基于图片、网格模型的客户端混合实现技术等.最后对该架构和系统进行了性能测试和分析.提出的方法实用、鲁棒、扩展性好,可为同类系统设计提供很好的参考.

一种超大规模地形的实时渲染方法

地形的三维可视化在多个领域中有着广泛的应用。本文将地形数据分块技术、LOD技术、视锥裁减技术和ROAM算法等相结合,提出了一种解决超大规模地形数据实时渲染问题的方法。该方法可以实现足够大规模地形数据的实时连续细节层次渲染,并且利用了帧和帧之间的关联性,极大的提高了渲染速度,取得了较好的渲染效果。

分块LOD大规模地形实时渲染算法

针对大规模地形渲染时内存消耗大、帧速率低的问题,提出一种基于线性四叉树的分块层次细节实时渲染算法.在Geomipmapping算法的基础上,首先通过降采样获得相同尺寸的高程数据,结合不同缩放、平移因子,离线建立地形块金字塔结构;然后构建地形块的线性四叉树索引,并定义更为合理的地形块调度准则;最后利用垂直裙带法消除裂缝,设计基于GPU的morphing方法实现顶点的几何过渡.实验结果表明,文中算法能明显减少高程数据存储量,有效地降低了CPU处理时间和GPU渲染批次;在保证画面平滑流畅的同时,达到了较高的渲染速率.

基于视点相关透视纹理的矢量数据在三维地形上的叠加绘制

为了精确、高效地将传统二维矢量数据叠加到三维多分辨率地形上,提出一种基于视点相关透视纹理的叠加绘制算法.首先通过场景视点得到能充分逼近当前地形可视范围的透视投影,然后用该透视投影实时地将二维矢量数据绘制在与地形绑定的纹理上,同时在GPU中并行计算出纹理坐标.与传统的基于纹理的绘制方法相比,视点相关的透视投影能够提高纹理的像素利用率,从而减轻传统方法所产生的走样问题,提高矢量数据的绘制质量;且该算法不受地形几何数据的约束,能够与目前大多数多分辨率地形模型以及影像金字塔很好地结合在一起使用.

大规模多分辨率地形模型简化生成方法

针对地形的四叉树简化技术 ,提出一个简单的裂缝消除算法 该算法不使用递归同样可以使四叉树满足约束条件 ,简化结果不存在T型连接 利用该算法实现了地形数据的实时显示 。

大规模地形动态快速绘制技术研究

大规模地形的快速绘制是目前的研究热点,如何有效地进行地形数据组织及模型简化,关系到渲染的速度和效果。为解决这个问题,结合现有算法提出了一种基于灵活简化准则的分块连续LOD模型构造算法,以及相应的模型预裁减调度绘制算法,将大规模地形转换为小块地形进行处理,并利用视点运动的连续性和前后帧的相关性,管理调度细节层次模型。实验结果表明,该算法有效地解决了绘制速度与质量之间的矛盾,较好地实现了大规模地形场景的实时快速漫游。