The Beishan underground research laboratory for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste in China:Planning, site selection,site characterization and in situ tests

With the rapid development of nuclear power in China, the disposal of high-level radioactive waste（HLW） has become an important issue for nuclear safety and environmental protection. Deep geological disposal is internationally accepted as a feasible and safe way to dispose of HLW, and underground research laboratories（URLs） play an important and multi-faceted role in the development of HLW repositories. This paper introduces the overall planning and the latest progress for China＇s URL. On the basis of the proposed strategy to build an area-specific URL in combination with a comprehensive evaluation of the site selection results obtained during the last 33 years, the Xinchang site in the Beishan area,located in Gansu Province of northwestern China, has been selected as the final site for China＇s first URL built in granite. In the process of characterizing the Xinchang URL site, a series of investigations,including borehole drilling,geological mapping, geophysical surveying,hydraulic testing and in situ stress measurements, has been conducted. The investigation results indicate that the geological,hydrogeological, engineering geological and geochemical conditions of the Xinchang site are very suitable for URL construction. Meanwhile, to validate and develop construction technologies for the Beishan URL, the Beishan exploration tunnel（BET）, which is a 50-m-deep facility in the Jiujing sub-area, has been constructed and several in situ tests, such as drill-and-blast tests, characterization of the excavation damaged zone（EDZ）, and long-term deformation monitoring of surrounding rocks, have been performed in the BET. The methodologies and technologies established in the BET will serve for URL construction.According to the achievements of the characterization of the URL site, a preliminary design of the URL with a maximum depth of 560 m is proposed and necessary in situ tests in the URL are planned.

High-level radioactive waste disposal in China: update 2010

For geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste （HLW）, the Chinese policy is that the spent nuclear fuel （SNF） should be reprocessed first, followed by vitrification and final disposal. The preliminary repository concept is a shaft-tunnel model, located in saturated zones in granite, while the final waste form for disposal is vitrified high-level radioactive waste. In 2006, the government published a long-term research and development （R＆D） plan for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The program consists of three steps： （1） laboratory studies and site selection for a HLW repository （2006-2020）; （2） underground in-situ tests （2021-2040）; and （3） repository construction （2041-2050） followed by operation. With the support of China Atomic Energy Authority, comprehensive studies are underway and some progresses are made. The site characterization, including deep borehole drilling, has been performed at the most potential Beishan site in Gansu Province, Northwestern China. The data from geological and hydrogeological investigations, in-situ stress and permeability measurements of rock mass are presented in this paper. Engineered barrier studies are concentrated on the Gaomiaozi bentonite. A mock-up facility, which is used to study the thermo-hydro-mechano-chemical （THMC） properties of the bentonite, is under construction. Several projects on mechanical properties of Beishan granite are also underway. The key scientific challenges faced with HLW disposal are also discussed.

Main outcomes from in situ thermo-hydro-mechanical experiments programme to demonstrate feasibility of radioactive high-level waste disposal in the Callovo-Oxfordian claystone

In the context of radioactive waste disposal,an underground research laboratory(URL)is a facility in which experiments are conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of constructing and operating a radioactive waste disposal facility within a geological formation.The Meuse/Haute-Marne URL is a sitespecific facility planned to study the feasibility of a radioactive waste disposal in the Callovo-Oxfordian(COx)claystone.The thermo-hydro-mechanical(THM)behaviour of the host rock is significant for the design of the underground nuclear waste disposal facility and for its long-term safety.The French National Radioactive Waste Management Agency(Andra)has begun a research programme aiming to demonstrate the relevancy of the French high-level waste(HLW)concept.This paper presents the programme implemented from small-scale(small diameter)boreholes to full-scale demonstration experiments to study the THM effects of the thermal transient on the COx claystone and the strategy implemented in this new programme to demonstrate and optimise current disposal facility components for HLW.It shows that the French high-level waste concept is feasible and working in the COx claystone.It also exhibits that,as for other plastic clay or claystone,heating-induced pore pressure increases and that the THM behaviour is anisotropic.

On area-specific underground research laboratory for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste in China

Underground research laboratories （URLs）, including ＂generic URLs＂ and ＂site-specific URLs＂, are un- derground facilities in which characterisation, testing, technology development, and/or demonstration activities are carried out in support of the development of geological repositories for high-level radioactive waste （HLW） disposal. In addition to the generic URL and site-specific URL, a concept of ＂areaspecific URL＂, or the third type of URL, is proposed in this paper. It is referred to as the facility that is built at a site within an area that is considered as a potential area for HLW repository or built at a place near the future repository site, and may be regarded as a precursor to the development of a repository at the site. It acts as a ＂generic URL＂, but also acts as a ＂site-specific URL＂ to some extent. Considering the current situation in China, the most suitable option is to build an ＂area-specific URL＂ in Beishan area, the first priority region for China＇s high-level waste repository. With this strategy, the goal to build China＇s URL by 2020 mav be achieved, but the time left is limited.

Study on the residence time of deep groundwater for high-level radioactive waste geological disposal

Residence time of deep groundwater is one of the most important parameters in safety and performance assessment for high-level radioactive waste geological disposal. In this study, we collected the deep groundwater samples of Jijicao in Gansu Beishan pre-selected region. The deep groundwater residence time at two depths estimated by Helium-4 accumulation method were 3.8 ka and 5.0 ka respectively upon measurement and calculation, which indicates that the deep groundwater is not derived from the deep crust circulation process. Hence, deep groundwater is featured with long residence time as well as slow circulation and update rate, and such features are conductive to the safe disposal of high-level radioactive waste.

Numerical analysis of thermal process in the near field around vertical disposal of high-level radioactive waste

For deep geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste(HLW)in granite,the temperature on the HLW canisters is commonly designed to be lower than100fiC.This criterion dictates the dimension of the repository.Based on the concept of HLW disposal in vertical boreholes,thermal process in the nearfield(host rock and buffer)surrounding HLW canisters has been simulated by using different methods.The results are drawn as follows:(a)the initial heat power of HLW canisters is the most important and sensitive parameter for evolution of temperaturefield;(b)the thermal properties and variations of the host rock,the engineered buffer,and possible gaps between canister and buffer and host rock are the additional key factors governing the heat transformation;(c)the gaps width and thefilling by water or air determine the temperature offsets between them.

Clays in radioactive waste disposal

Clays and argillites are considered in some countries as possible host rocks for nuclear waste disposal at great depth.The use of compacted swelling clays as engineered barriers is also considered within the framework of the multi-barrier concept.In relation to these concepts,various research programs have been conducted to assess the thermo-hydro-mechanical properties of radioactive waste disposal at great depth.After introducing the concepts of waste isolation developed in Belgium,France and Switzerland,the paper describes the retention and transfer properties of engineered barriers made up of compacted swelling clays in relation to microstructure features.Some features of the thermo-mechanical behaviors of three possible geological barriers,namely Boom clay（Belgium）,Callovo-Oxfordian clay（France） and Opalinus clay（Switzerland）,are then described,including the retention and transfer properties,volume change behavior,shear strength and thermal aspects.

Experimental study on the physico-mechanical properties of Tamusu mudstone — A potential host rock for high-level radioactive waste in Inner Mongolia of China

Tamusu mudstone, located in Bayin Gobi Basin in Inner Mongolia of China, has been selected as a potential host rock for high-level radioactive waste(HLW) disposal in China. A series of tests has been carried out, including X-ray diffraction(XRD) tests, scanning electron microscopy(SEM) tests, disintegration tests, permeability tests and triaxial compression tests, to estimate the physico-mechanical properties of Tamusu mudstone in this work. The mineral composition of Tamusu mudstone was analyzed and it was considered as a stable rock due to its low disintegration rate, i.e. approximately 0.11%after several wet/dry cycles. Based on the results of permeability test, it was found that Tamusu mudstone has a low permeability, with the magnitude of about 10—20m^(2). The low permeability makes the mudstone well prevent nuclide migration and diffusion, and might be influenced by temperature.The triaxial tests show that Tamusu mudstone is a stiff mudstone with high compressive strength, which means that the excavation disturbed zone would be smaller compared to other types of mudstone due to construction and operation of HLW repositories. Finally, the properties of Tamusu mudstone were compared with those of Opalinus clay, Callovo-Oxfordian(COx) argillite, and Boom clay to further discuss the possibility of using Tamusu mudstone as a potential nuclear waste disposal medium.

MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES IN CHINA

The policy and principles on management of radioactive wastes are stipulated.Cement solidification and bituminization unit has come into trial run. Solid radioactive waste is stored in tentative storage vault built in each of nuclear faCilities. Seventeen storages associated with applications of nuclear technology and radioisotopes have been built for provinces. Disposal of low and intermediate level radioactive wastes pursues the policy of 'regional disposal'. Four repositories have been planned to be built in northwest, southwest, south and east China respectively. A program for treatment and disposal of high level radioactive waste has been made.

Disposal of high-level radioactive waste in crystalline rock: On coupled processes and site development

Safe disposal of high-level radioactive nuclear waste(HLW)is crucial for human health and the environment,as well as for sustainable development.Deep geological disposal in sparsely fractured crystalline rock is considered one of the most favorable methods for final disposal of HLW.Extensive research has been conducted worldwide and many countries have initiated their own national development programs for deep geological disposal.Significant advancements of national programs for deep geological disposal of HLW in crystalline rock have been achieved in Sweden and Finland,which are currently under site development stage,focusing on detailed site characterization,repository construction,and post-closure safety analysis.Continued research and development remain important in the site development stage to ensure long-term safety of the HLW disposal repository.This work presents an overview and discussion of the progress as well as remaining open scientific issues and possibilities related to site development for safe disposal of HLW in crystalline rock.We emphasize that developing a comprehensive and convergent understanding of the coupled thermal,hydraulic,mechanical,chemical and biological(THMCB)processes in fractured crystalline rock remains the most important yet challenging topic for future studies towards safe disposal of HLW in crystalline rock.Advancements in laboratory facilities/techniques and computational models,as well as available comprehensive field data from site developments,provide new opportunities to enhance our understanding of the coupled processes and thereby repository design for safe geological disposal of HLW in crystalline rock.

High-Level Nuclear Wastes and the Environment: Analyses of Challenges and Engineering Strategies

The main objective of this paper is to analyze the current status of high-level nuclear waste disposal along with presentation of practical perspectives about the environmental issues involved. Present disposal designs and concepts are analyzed on a scientific basis and modifications to existing designs are proposed from the perspective of environmental safety. A new concept of a chemical heat sink is introduced for the removal of heat emitted due to radioactive decay in the spent nuclear fuel or high-level radioactive waste, and thermal spikes produced by radiation in containment materials. Mainly, UO2 and metallic U are used as fuels in nuclear reactors. Spent nuclear fuel contains fission products and transuranium elements which would remain radioactive for 104 to 108years. Essential concepts and engineering strategies for spent nuclear fuel disposal are described. Conceptual designs are described and discussed considering the long-term radiation and thermal activity of spent nuclear fuel. Notions of physical and chemical barriers to contain nuclear waste are highlighted. A timeframe for nuclear waste disposal is proposed and time-line nuclear waste disposal plan or policy is described and discussed.

低、中水平放射性废物岩洞型处置库充填材料的作用和功能研究

充填材料是低、中水平放射性废物岩洞处置库的重要工程屏障之一,明确其在处置库中的作用和功能是进行充填材料选择的前提和基础。本文通过调研国际上处置库所用充填材料,分析充填材料在处置库的作用和功能,提出了低、中水平放射性废物岩洞型处置库充填材料的选取原则。

地面核磁共振法在甘肃北山新场花岗岩体赋水性评价中的试验研究

岩体赋水性评价是高放废物地质处置库场址评价的关键研究内容之一,通常采用钻探并进行钻孔水文试验以获得岩石渗透率、地下水含量及分布等水文地质参数,然而,常规钻孔水文试验不适宜大面积高频次地覆盖整个选址区。为此,采用可直接探测地下水的地面核磁共振法对新场花岗岩体3个已知水文钻孔进行了赋水性评价试验,结果表明:地下水水位埋深位置表现为相对高的自由水含量,且其上部同时表现为相对高束缚水含量;裂隙水发育位置表现为同时具有高自由水异常和高束缚水异常;由核磁共振信号反演计算得到的最大渗透系数与全孔抽水试验获得的平均渗透系数在同一数量级,且核磁共振探测获得的岩石单位体积含水率为岩体地下水赋水性评价提供了定量参考。本次地面核磁共振探测试验结果与钻孔水文地质试验结果一致性好,有效揭示了地下水水位埋深、岩石渗透率、水量大小及裂隙水发育位置,地面核磁共振方法可有效应用于花岗岩体赋水性评价,为经济、快速且无损地获得岩体关键水文地质参数提供了有效技术手段。

高放废物处置库黏土围岩温度-渗流-应力耦合数值分析

深地质高放射性废物处置库运营过程中,围岩通常处在复杂的温度-渗流-应力多场共同影响的地质环境中,在温度-渗流-应力耦合作用下,合理地确定高放废物处置库硐室间距范围对处置库设计和长期安全稳定性评价尤为重要。基于国内外研究资料,针对塔木素预选区高放废物处置库黏土围岩,使用FLAC3D有限差分软件模拟计算了4种不同的硐室间距,并通过对围岩温度场、渗流场、应力场和变形场进行对比分析,对高放废物处置库硐室间距进行了优化。结果表明:在温度-渗流-应力三场耦合作用下,高放废物处置库黏土围岩相邻硐室间距最优设计值为10~12 m;当硐室间距小于10 m时,废物罐中心温度峰值超过了最高温度设计值100℃,当硐室间距大于12 m时,相邻硐室间的影响逐渐减弱,温度峰值逐渐趋近于单硐室。研究结果可为我国高放废物处置库黏土围岩硐室间距优化设计提供参考依据。

高放废物处置库温度场解析

高放废物处置库的温度场分布特征是处置库安全性能评估和尺寸设计的重要依据之一.根据KBS-3V型处置库概念设计,建立了单废物罐的轴对称2维传热模型.首先,借助有限傅里叶正弦变换、分离变量法和冲量定理法得到单废物罐放热条件下围岩任意点的温度解析表达式,通过与已有的半解析解和线热源解结果的对比分析,验证了该模型的有效性;采用在岩壁温度上叠加缓冲层温度差的方法得到废物罐表面温度,然后分析了废物罐近场温度演化规律;最后,对材料热参数、核废物衰变参数以及几何参数对废物罐表面温度的影响进行了分析.研究结果表明:废物罐近场温度在前2年快速上升并达到峰值,之后温度随处置时间缓慢下降;缓冲区温度梯度较大,而围岩区温度梯度较小;缓冲材料和围岩导热系数越大、缓冲层厚度越薄、核废物燃烧值越小、冷却时间越长,则废物罐表面温度越低;膨润土颗粒层厚度对废物罐表面温度的影响大于膨润土块层厚度,这是因为颗粒层材料导热系数较低.

处置库概念设计比选评价研究初探

按照“选址—地下实验室—处置库”的“三步曲”式研发战略,我国首个高放废物地质处置地下实验室已顺利开工建设。为了满足处置库选址阶段安全评价要求,同时为地下实验室实验设计提供支撑,发展适用于地下实验室场址的处置库概念设计已成为当前亟待开展的工作。各国处置库研发过程中,普遍采用系统方法对不同概念设计进行比较,以确认或完善其设计。本研究基于对瑞典、芬兰、美国和英国等国相关研究的调研,对比了不同国家处置库概念设计比选评价方法与评价准则,分析表明:各国相关研究具有形式严谨、评价分阶段、评价准则综合性强和决策具有灵活性等共同特征,同时,在比较前提、候选方案和评价因素等方面存在差异。基于调研分析结果,提出主要建议如下:1)借鉴国外相关研究经验,从长期性能与安全、工程技术,以及成本和场址有效利用三方面,建立我国处置库概念设计评价方法与评价准则。2)基于地下实验室场址条件和我国源项特征,开展概念设计比选评价研究,提出适用于地下实验室场址的处置库概念设计。

Current status of the geological disposal programme and an overview of the safety case at the pre-siting stage in Japan

In Japan,high-level radioactive waste and specific low-level radioactive waste which includes long-lived radionuclides are planned to be disposed of in the geological formations at depths greater than 300 m.The disposal site will be selected through a stepwise site investigation process that consists of a Literature Survey,Preliminary Investigation,and Detailed Investigation phases.In October 2020 a Literature Survey was launched in Japan at two municipalities in Hokkaido for the first time since NUMO initiated a nationwide call for volunteer municipalities in 2002,and the outcomes are currently being compiled.To enhance the public’s understanding of how to implement safe geological disposal in Japan based on the latest scientific knowledge and technology,NUMO,as the implementing organisation,developed and published a safety case for geological disposal at the pre-siting stage.This safety case provides multiple lines of arguments and evidence to demonstrate the feasibility of the geological disposal and a basic structure for a safety case that will be applicable to any potential sites in Japan.The safety case also presented some R&D challenges to enhance the technical confidence of the project,including the R&D topics related to rock mechanics.This report presents the current status of the geological disposal programme in Japan,together with the status of the Literature Survey phase and an overview of the NUMO safety case.

高放废物地质处置库巷道掘进安全技术综述

该文介绍高放废物地质处置库的基本情况,并论述高放废物地质处置库巷道掘进过程中产生有害因素的研究现状。依据巷道掘进过程中产生的炮烟、粉尘、氡3种主要有害因素介绍掘进过程中有害因素的扩散规律,并从不同角度提出相应的应对措施。依据研究现状提出目前研究存在的不足。

世界高放废物地质处置库选址研究概况及国内进展

高放废物是核能事业发展的必然产物。它的安全处置是核能事业持续发展的前提 ,已受到世界各国的高度重视。文中阐述了高放废物深地质处置的一般概念。同时重点介绍了世界上一些国家处置库选址研究的主要内容和研究进展 ,例如 ,美国把处置库建造过程分为场地推荐、场地的特征评价、处置库场地的选择和批准、领取场地执照和处置库建造设计的审批、处置库的建造 5个阶段 ;德国的选址研究工作包括地电和地热研究 ,重力、地震、地球化学、水文地质、同位素地球化学及微生物研究等 ;瑞典在花岗岩中建成了地下实验室 ,并制定了实验室的总体研究目标等等。另外也介绍了中国在甘肃省北山进行的高放废物地质处置库选址工作的情况 ,研究表明北山地区为一地壳稳定区 ,也是地下水贫水区且地下水流速缓慢 ,有利于处置库的建造 ,进一步的地面地质、水文地质勘察工作及钻探工程工作正在进行中。伴随着这些工作的完成 ,中国将大大缩短在高放废物地质处置研究方面与发达国家的距离。

高放废物处置库芨芨槽预选场址深部地下水同位素研究

深地质处置是目前国际上普遍接受的高放废物安全处置方案。对于这种方案而言,安全处置高放废物的前提是选择适宜的场址,而场址的适宜性在很大程度上取决于其水文地质条件。高放废物处置库场址需要低渗透岩体作为处置库围岩,对于低渗透岩体而言,经典和传统的水文地质研究方法受到了很大的限制,而同位素技术与其他水文地质方法结合时,却能发挥出良好的作用。本文以目前我国高放废物处置库预选场址之一的芨芨槽场址为例,重点讨论了同位素方法在花岗岩体场址水文地质研究中的应用。根据钻孔不同深度的地下水环境同位素（δD、δ~18O、3~H和14~C）组成特征,结合场址水文地质条件,识别了区内地下水的来源,揭示了控制地下水运移交替速率的主要因素。结果表明,该区深部地下水14~C年龄高达8000a左右,说明其交替、运移十分缓慢,但同时也含有少量的氚,说明地下水以侧向补给的＂老水＂为主,接受当地大气降水入渗补给的＂新水＂所占比例很小。此外,通过地下水14~C年龄与取样段岩芯采取率的对比,认识到对于区内的花岗岩体而言,决定地下水交替、运移速率的主要因素是裂隙的发育程度,而不是深度。