Identification of reservoir types in deep carbonates based on mixedkernel machine learning using geophysical logging data

Identification of reservoir types in deep carbonates has always been a great challenge due to complex logging responses caused by the heterogeneous scale and distribution of storage spaces.Traditional cross-plot analysis and empirical formula methods for identifying reservoir types using geophysical logging data have high uncertainty and low efficiency,which cannot accurately reflect the nonlinear relationship between reservoir types and logging data.Recently,the kernel Fisher discriminant analysis(KFD),a kernel-based machine learning technique,attracts attention in many fields because of its strong nonlinear processing ability.However,the overall performance of KFD model may be limited as a single kernel function cannot simultaneously extrapolate and interpolate well,especially for highly complex data cases.To address this issue,in this study,a mixed kernel Fisher discriminant analysis(MKFD)model was established and applied to identify reservoir types of the deep Sinian carbonates in central Sichuan Basin,China.The MKFD model was trained and tested with 453 datasets from 7 coring wells,utilizing GR,CAL,DEN,AC,CNL and RT logs as input variables.The particle swarm optimization(PSO)was adopted for hyper-parameter optimization of MKFD model.To evaluate the model performance,prediction results of MKFD were compared with those of basic-kernel based KFD,RF and SVM models.Subsequently,the built MKFD model was applied in a blind well test,and a variable importance analysis was conducted.The comparison and blind test results demonstrated that MKFD outperformed traditional KFD,RF and SVM in the identification of reservoir types,which provided higher accuracy and stronger generalization.The MKFD can therefore be a reliable method for identifying reservoir types of deep carbonates.

Types and Characteristics of the Lower Silurian Shale Gas Reservoirs in and Around the Sichuan Basin

This study analyzed the characteristics and types of the Lower Silurian shale gas reservoirs in and around Sichuan Basin through field observations, slices, Ar-ion-beam milling, scanning electron microscopy, and x-ray diffraction analysis of 25 black shale outcrops and samples. Two main types of shale gas reservoirs were determined, i.e., fractures and pores. Fractures were classified into five categories, i.e., giant, large, medium, small, and micro, according to the features of the shale gas reservoirs, effect of fracture on gas accumulation, and fracture nature. Pore types include organic matter pores, mineral pores（mineral surface, intraparticle, interparticle, and corrosional pore）, and nanofractures. The various fracture types, fracture scales, pore types, and pore sizes exert different controls over the gas storage and production capacity. Pores serve as a reservoir for gas storage and, the gas storage capacity can be determined using pores; fractures serve as pathways for gas migration, and gas production capacity can be determined using them.

Formation conditions and reservoir-forming models of the Ordovician buried hill reservoirs in the Jizhong depression

The buried hill in the Jizhong depression contains abundant petroleum reserves and are important production areas.The Ordovician buried hill has restricted the discovery of new oil and gas exploration targets because of its strong reservoir heterogeneity and complex reservoir-controlling factors.Based on a large volume of core,thin section,logging,seismic,and geochemical data and numerous geological analyses,the reservoir-forming conditions and modes were systematically analyzed to guide the exploration and achieve important breakthroughs in the Yangshuiwu and Wen an slope buried hills.The study revealed that three sets of source rocks of the third and fourth members of the Shahejie Formation from the Paleogene and Carboniferous-Permian were developed in the Jizhong depression,providing sufficient material basis for the formation of buried hill oil and gas reservoirs.The reservoir control mechanism involving the three major factors of“cloud-karst-fault”was clarified,and karst cave,fracture fissure-pore,and cloud pore type reservoir models were established,thereby expanding the exploration potential.Controlled by the superposition of multi-stage tectonic processes during the Indosinian,Yanshanian,and Himalayan,two genetic buried hill trap types of uplift-depression and depression-uplift were formed.Based on the analysis of reservoir-forming factors of the Ordovician buried hill,three buried hill oil and gas reservoir-forming models were identified:low-level tectonic-lithologic composite quasi-layered buried hill,medium-level paleo-storage paleo-block buried hill,and high-level paleo-storage new-block buried hill.Comprehensive evaluations indicate that the reservoir-forming conditions of the low-level tectonic-lithologic composite quasi-layered buried hill in the northern portion of the Jizhong depression are the most favorable and that the Sicundian and Xinzhen buried hills are favorable areas for future exploration.

Characteristics,classification and KNN-based evaluation of paleokarst carbonate reservoirs:A case study of Feixianguan Formation in northeastern Sichuan Basin,China

The Feixianguan Formation reservoirs in northeastern Sichuan are mainly a suite of carbonate platform deposits.The reservoir types are diverse with high heterogeneity and complex genetic mechanisms.Pores,vugs and fractures of different genetic mechanisms and scales are often developed in association,and it is difficult to classify reservoir types merely based on static data such as outcrop observation,and cores and logging data.In the study,the reservoirs in the Feixianguan Formation are grouped into five types by combining dynamic and static data,that is,karst breccia-residual vuggy type,solution-enhanced vuggy type,fractured-vuggy type,fractured type and matrix type(non-reservoir).Based on conventional logging data,core data and formation microscanner image(FMI)data of the Qilibei block,northeastern Sichuan Basin,the reservoirs are classified in accordance with fracture-vug matching relationship.Based on the principle of cluster analysis,K-Nearest Neighbor(KNN)classification templates are established,and the applicability of the model is verified by using the reservoir data from wells uninvolved in modeling.Following the analysis of the results of reservoir type discrimination and the production of corresponding reservoir intervals,the contributions of various reservoir types to production are evaluated and the reliability of reservoir type classification is verified.The results show that the solution-enhanced vuggy type is of high-quality sweet spot reservoir in the study area with good physical property and high gas production,followed by the fractured-vuggy type,and the fractured and karst breccia-residual vuggy types are the least promising.

Study on the Impact of Massive Refracturing on the Fracture Network in Tight Oil Reservoir Horizontal Wells

Class III tight oil reservoirs have low porosity and permeability,which are often responsible for low production rates and limited recovery.Extensive repeated fracturing is a well-known technique to fix some of these issues.With such methods,existing fractures are refractured,and/or new fractures are created to facilitate communication with natural fractures.This study explored how different refracturing methods affect horizontal well fracture networks,with a special focus on morphology and related fluid flow changes.In particular,the study relied on the unconventional fracture model(UFM).The evolution of fracture morphology and flow field after the initial fracturing were analyzed accordingly.The simulation results indicated that increased formation energy and reduced reservoir stress differences can promote fracture expansion.It was shown that the length of the fracture network,the width of the fracture network,and the complexity of the fracture can be improved,the oil drainage area can be increased,the distance of oil and gas seepage can be reduced,and the production of a single well can be significantly increased.

Damming effects on dissolved inorganic carbon in different kinds of reservoirs in Jialing River,Southwest China

To assess the effects of river damming on dissolved inorganic carbon in the Jialing River, a total of 40 water samples, including inflow, outflow, and stratified water in four cascade reservoirs(Tingzikou, Xinzheng,Dongxiguan, Caojie) were collected in January and July,2016. The major cations, anions, and δ^(13)C_(DIC) values were analyzed. It was found that the dissolved compositions are dominated by carbonate weathering, while sulfuric acids may play a relatively important role during carbonate weathering and increasing DIC concentration. Different reservoirs had variable characteristics of water physiochemical stratification. The DIC concentrations of reservoir water were lower in summer than those in winter due to the dilute effects and intensive aquatic photosynthesis, as well as imported tributaries. The δ^(13)C_(DIC) values in Tingzikou Reservoir were higher during summer than those in winter,which indicated that intensive photosynthesis increased the δ^(13)C_(DIC) values in residual water, but a similar trend was not obvious in other reservoirs. Except for in Xinzheng Reservoir, the δ^(13)C_(DIC) values in inflow and outflow reservoir water were lower than those in the surface water of stratified sampling in summer. For stratified sampling, it could be found that, in summer, the Tingzikou Reservoir δ^(13)C_(DIC) values significantly decreased with water depthdue to the anaerobic breakdown of organic matter. The significant correlation(p<0.01 or 0.05) between the DIC concentrations, the δ^(13)C_(DIC) values and anthropogenic species(Na^++K^+, Cl~–, SO_4^(2-) and NO_3^-) showed that the isotope composition of DIC can be a useful tracer of contaminants. In total, Tingzikou Reservoir showed lacustrine features, Xinzheng Reservoir and Dongxiguan Reservoir had "transitional'' features, and Caojie Reservoir had a total of "fluvial'' features. Generally, cascade reservoirs in the Jialing River exhibited natural river features rather than typical lake features due to characteristics of reservoir water in physiochemical stratification, spatiotemporal variations of DIC concentrations and isotopic compositions. It is evident that the dissolved inorganic carbon dynamics of natural rivers had been partly remolded by dam building.

Accumulation and exploration of petroleum reservoirs in west slope of northern Songliao Basin, China

On the basis of the present situation of oil and gas exploration and geological research of the west slope in the northern Songliao Basin, the factors controlling reservoir formation, oil and gas migration and accumulation, have been re-examined from the aspects of structure, deposition and reservoir formation. The results show that:(1) The west slope is a gentle slope which overlaps to the west, and nose structure is developed near the hydrocarbon generation depression, which is in the dominant direction area of hydrocarbon migration. A series of NE structural belts are developed on the slope and are favorable places for oil and gas accumulation.(2) The west slope can be further divided into the upper slope and the lower slope, and there are many kinds of oil and gas reservoirs, including structural, structural-lithologic and lithologic ones. In the upper slope, the major oil layer is Sartu controlled by structure;in the lower slope, multi-layers are oil-bearing, and the oil reservoirs are mostly composite ones.(3) Faults, unconformity surfaces and continuous sand bodies are the main channels of oil and gas migration;structure, sand body and fault jointly control the oil and gas enrichment in the slope;and the matching relationship between micro-amplitude and sand body, small fault and sand body control the oil and gas accumulation. On the basis of the above research, fine identification and effectiveness evaluation technology of composite trap has been developed through extensive study. Combination traps were identified by multiple technologies, including fault classification, micro-amplitude structure identification, fine sedimentation research, and lithologic trap identification by waveform indication inversion;and then the configuration relationship between fault and sand body, structural amplitude and sand body were analyzed to set up the evaluation criteria of effective traps. According to the criteria, the traps were selected to enhance the exploration success rate.

Shale oil enrichment evaluation and production law in Gulong Sag,Songliao Basin,NE China

Based on the results of drilling,tests and simulation experiments,the shales of the Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation in the Gulong Sag of the Songliao Basin are discussed with respect to hydrocarbon generation evolution,shale oil occurrence,and pore/fracture evolution mechanism.In conjunction with a substantial amount of oil testing and production data,the Gulong shale oil enrichment layers are evaluated and the production behaviors and decline law are analyzed.The results are drawn in four aspects.First,the Gulong shales are in the stage of extensive hydrocarbon expulsion when R_(0) is 1.0%-1.2%,with the peak hydrocarbon expulsion efficiency of 49.5%approximately.In the low-medium maturity stage,shale oil migrates from kerogen to rocks and organic pores/fractures.In the medium-high maturity stage,shale oil transforms from adsorbed state to free state.Second,the clay mineral intergranular pores/fractures,dissolution pores,and organic pores make up the majority of the pore structure.During the transformation,clay minerals undergo significant intergranular pore/fracture development between the minerals such as illite and illite/smectite mixed layer.A network of pores/fractures is formed by organic matter cracking.Third,free hydrocarbon content,effective porosity,total porosity,and brittle mineral content are the core indicators for the evaluation of shale oil enrichment layers.Class-I layers are defined as free hydrocarbon content equal or greater than 6.0 mg/g,effective porosity equal or greater than 3.5%,total porosity equal or greater than 8.0%,and brittle mineral content equal or greater than 50%.It is believed that the favourable oil layers are Q2-Q3 and Q8-Q9.Fourth,the horizontal wells in the core area of the light oil zone exhibit a high cumulative production in the first year,and present a hyperbolic production decline pattern,with the decline index of 0.85-0.95,the first-year decline rate of 14.5%-26.5%,and the single-well estimated ultimate recovery(EUR)greater than 2.0×10^(4)t.In practical exploration and production,more efforts will be devoted to the clarification of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion mechanisms,accurate testing of porosity and hydrocarbon content/phase of shale under formation conditions,precise delineation of the boundary of enrichment area,relationship between mechanical properties and stimulated reservoir volume,and enhanced oil recovery,in order to improve the EUR and achieve a large-scale,efficient development of shale oil.

Characteristics,Distribution Patterns,and Classification of Volcanic Reservoirs in the Huanghua Depression,Bohai Bay Basin,China

Identifying volcanic reservoir types and their distribution patterns in volcanic edifices is important for accurate prediction and exploration of hydrocarbon reservoirs.Herein,we analyzed the distribution patterns of different reservoir levels in volcanic edifices,discussed controlling factors,and reclassified reservoir types.This was done using core observations,whole-rock geochemistry,and reservoir physical property analysis,combined with logging,drilling,seismic,and oil-gas test data.Reservoirs can be divided into three classes based on their physical properties.The Mesozoic intermediate and basic rocks formed ClassⅠreservoirs,most lithologies formed ClassⅡreservoirs,and diabase intrusions and tight volcanic rocks formed ClassⅢreservoirs.Reservoirs form in different lithologies in the Huanghua depression due to weathering.Tectonic faults deepen the influence of weathering leading to the formation of reservoirs in tight.Additionally,volcanic rhythms and fractures control the vertical distribution of Cenozoic basaltic reservoirs.Volcanic reservoirs are classified into five types based on the main controlling factors and distribution patterns in volcanic edifices:tectonic-alteration,vesiclefracture,weathered-effusive,weathered-eruptive,and weathered-tectonic types.Among these,the weathered-eruptive type can easily form ClassⅠreservoirs,making it the best target for exploration.Whereas the weathered-tectonic and vesicle-fracture types tend to develop ClassⅡreservoirs and can be potential targets.The new classification takes into account the relationship between reservoir levels and their distribution in volcanic edifices,it is more conducive to igneous reservoir prediction in the Huanghua depression.This study provides a novel idea for the classification and comparative study of igneous reservoirs in petroliferous basins.

Saturation evaluation of microporous low resistivity carbonate oil pays in Rub Al Khali Basin in the Middle East

To solve the problem that it is difficult to identify carbonate low resistivity pays(LRPs) by conventional logging methods in the Rub Al Khali Basin, the Middle East, the variation of fluid distribution and rock conductivity during displacement were analyzed by displacement resistivity experiments simulating the process of reservoir formation and production, together with the data from thin sections, mercury injection and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments. In combination with geological understandings, the genetic mechanisms of LRPs were revealed, then the saturation interpretation model was selected, the variation laws and distribution range of the model parameters were defined, and finally an updated comprehensive saturation interpretation technique for the LRPs has been proposed. In the study area, the LRPs have resistivity values of less than 1 Ω·m, similar to or even slightly lower than that of the water layers. Geological research reveals that the LRPs were developed in low-energy depositional environment and their reservoir spaces are controlled by micro-scale pore throats, with an average radius of less than 0.7 μm, so they are typical microporous LRPs. Different from LRPs of sandstone and mudstone, they have less tortuous conductive paths than conventional reservoirs, and thus lower resistivity value under the same saturation. Archie’s formula is applicable to the saturation interpretation of LRPs with a cementation index value of 1.77-1.93 and a saturation index value of 1.82-2.03 that are 0.2-0.4 lower than conventional reservoirs respectively. By using interpretation parameters determined by classification statistics of petrophysical groups(PGs), oil saturations of the LRPs were calculated at bout 30%-50%,15% higher than the results by conventional methods, and basically consistent with the data of Dean Stark, RST, oil testing and production. The 15 wells of oil testing and production proved that the coincidence rate of saturation interpretation is over 90%and the feasibility of this method has been further verified.

Combination and distribution of reservoir space in complex carbonate rocks

This paper discusses the reservoir space in carbonate rocks in terms of types,combination features,distribution regularity,and controlling factors,based on core observations and tests of the North Truva Oilfield,Caspian Basin.According to the reservoir space combinations,carbonate reservoirs can be divided into four types,i.e.,pore,fracture-pore,pore-cavity-fracture,and pore-cavity.Formation and distribution of these reservoirs is strongly controlled by deposition,diagenesis,and tectonism.In evaporated platform and restricted platform facies,the reservoirs are predominately affected by meteoric fresh water leaching in the supergene-para-syngenetic period and by uplifting and erosion in the late stage,making both platform facies contain all the above-mentioned four types of reservoirs,with various pores,such as dissolved cavities and dissolved fractures,or structural fractures occasionally in favorable structural locations.In open platform facies,the reservoirs deposited continuously in deeper water,in an environment of alternative high-energy shoals（where pore-fracture-type reservoirs are dominant） and low-energy shoals（where pore reservoirs are dominant）.

Oil oxidation in the whole temperature regions during oil reservoir air injection and development methods

The oil oxidation characteristics of the whole temperature regions from 30 ℃ to 600 ℃ during oil reservoir air injection were revealed by experiments. The whole oil oxidation temperature regions were divided into four different parts: dissolving and inflation region, low temperature oxidation region, medium temperature oxidation region and high temperature oxidation region. The reaction mechanisms of different regions were explained. Based on the oil oxidation characteristics and filed tests results, light oil reservoirs air injection development methods were divided into two types: oxygen-reducing air flooding and air flooding;heavy oil reservoirs air injection in-situ combustion development methods were divided into two types: medium temperature in-situ combustion and high temperature in-situ combustion. When the reservoir temperature is lower than 120 ℃, oxygen-reducing air flooding should be used for light oil reservoir development. When the reservoir temperature is higher than 120 ℃, air flooding method should be used for light oil reservoir development. For a normal heavy oil reservoir, when the combustion front temperature is lower than 400 ℃, the development method is medium temperature in-situ combustion. For a heavy oil reservoir with high oil resin and asphalting contents, when the combustion front temperature is higher than 450 ℃, the development method at this condition is high temperature in-situ combustion. Ten years field tests of air injection carried out by PetroChina proved that air has advantages in technical, economical and gas source aspects compared with other gas agents for oilfield gas injection development. Air injection development can be used in low/super-low permeability light oil reservoirs, medium and high permeability light oil reservoirs and heavy oil reservoirs. Air is a very promising gas flooding agent.

Eutrophication and algal blooms in channel type reservoirs:A novel enclosure experiment by changing light intensity

To explore eutrophication and algal bloom mechanisms in channel type reservoirs, a novel enclosure experiment was conducted by changing light intensity （LI） in the Daning River of the Three Gorges Reservoir （TGR）. Square enclosures （side 5.0 m） were covered on the surface with shading materials of different thickness, and with their bases open to the river. Changes and characteristics of the main eutrophication factors under the same water quality and hydrodynamic conditions but different LI were evaluated. All experimental water samples were neutral and alkalescent, with high nitrogen and phosphate concentrations, low potassium permanganate index, stable water quality, and different LI. At the same water depth, LI decreased with increasing shade material, while dissolved oxygen and water temperature were both stable. The growth peak of phytoplankton was with light of 345-4390 lux underwater or 558-7450 lux above the water surface, and water temperature of 25.6--26.5℃. Algae were observed in all water samples, accounting for 6 phylum and 57 species, with algal density changing frequently. The results showed that significantly strong or weak light was unfavorable for phytoplankton growth and the function together with suitable temperature and LI and ample sunshine encouraged algal blooms under the same water quality and hydrodynamic conditions. Correlation analysis indicated that algae reduced gradually lengthwise along water depth in the same enclosure while pH became high. The power exponent relationship between chlorophyll a （Chl-a） and LI was found by curve fitting, that is Chl-a = K（LI）n.

Bioherm Petroleum Reservoir Types and Features in Main Sedimentary Basins of the South China Sea

It is known from macrocomparisons and microresearches of bioherm reservoirs in main sedimentary basins of the South China Sea through deep-water petroleum explorations and by means of 2D/3D seismic data and a whole-coring core from the Xisha Islands that there are great dif- ferences between deep-sea oil and gas fields in the world and those in the South China Sea, as reservoir systems of the former are mainly clastic rocks, whereas the latter have organic reefs that act as reser- voirs of their largest oil and gas fields, which are represented by large Liuhua 11-1 reef oilfield in the north and super-large L reef gas field in the south of the South China Sea. Therefore, it is of great significance to study deep-water hioherm reservoirs in the South China Sea. Comparisons of organic reefs in the four large islands of the South China Sea give evidences that such reefs in main sedimentary basins came into being during Cenozoic, especially in Neogene, and mainly occur as tower （point） reef, massive reef, platform-edge reef, and patch reef in shape, which show different reservoir physical properties and seismic reflection configurations and make up carbonate rock-bioherm formations in the island reef and sedimentary basin areas. Generally, the south and north parts differ from the east and the west of the South China Sea in geologic conditions, as their corresponding continental shelf/island shelf areas are relatively wide/ narrow, large stream current systems are well developed/not so well developed, and terrigenous sediments are relatively sufficient/insufficient. The southeast and south parts of the South China Sea had organic reefs built up earlier than the north and the reef building mainly took place in Neogene; these Neogene organic reefs all be- long to plant algal reef rocks. Liuhua oilfield in the Pearl River Mouth basin is found to mainly have red algal bindstone, Malampaya reef in the northern Palawan basin is rich in both red algal bind- stone and green algal reef segmented rock, and especially Miocene red algal framestone and green algal segmented rock are discovered in the Xisha Islands. These algal reefs created different sedimentary mi- crofacies as well as various rock structures and types, and through recent researches on the mechanism of dolomitization, freshwater dolomite was discovered and grouped under products from dolomitization in mixed water that was regression reefal dolomite of good reservoir properties.